GHANA INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM THE ROLE OF NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS (NGOS) IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF LOWER MANYA KROBO MUNICIPALITY BY: SALOME KADI TETTEH (MADC20076) A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH (SoGSaR), GHANA INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF ARTS IN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION NOVEMBER, 2021 i DECLARATION AND CERTIFICATION CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION I declare that this thesis, with the exception of quotations and references contained in published works which have all been identified and acknowledged is entirely my own original work, and it has not been submitted, either in part or whole, for another degree elsewhere. SIGNATURE... DATE: 30th NOVEMBER, 2021 SALOME KADI TETTEH MADC20076 SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this work were supervised in accordance with the guidelines for supervision of thesis laid down by School of Graduate Studies and Research, Ghana Institute of Journalism. SIGNATURE: . DATE: 2ND DECEMBER, 2021 DR. DANIEL ODOOM ii DEDICATION To my parents Mr. Lawrence Kweku Tetteh and Mrs. Constance Terkperkie Tetteh. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I first of all express my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Daniel Odoom, for patiently guiding me through the onerous tasks in research that led to this work, for your desire to impart knowledge, share your expertise and for taking time out of your busy schedules to help me through this work. I appreciate your timely feedback of my work to improve it. All of your efforts, contributions, and assistance will forever be remembered and cherished. To all the lecturers who imparted knowledge during my programme, I am grateful. I am highly indebted to my siblings especially Patrick Kwabla Tetteh for helping in every way he could to make this happen. Not forgetting Bernard, Daniel, Sophia and Emily for their prayers and support throughout my education. Knowing I can always count on you and knowing you are always behind me gives me confidence to keep trying new things and setting out on new adventures. May God richly bless you. Kind regards to my dearest Richard Ohipeni for being my source of inspiration. To my pastor Rev. Chris Baah Nartey and friends Collins Osei, John Obuaba, Hilary Kodji, Hon. Zhando, Amos Asare and Dedo Opata I say thank you so much for your encouragement. I am also grateful to all the NGOs who were involved in the work. Finally, my appreciation goes to my course mates Samuel, Dave K , Ebenezer, Augustine, Emmanuel, Prince, Richard, Debby, Emma, Jennifer, Rhonnah, Esmeralda, Linda, Lambert, McJames, Diana, Gifty and other group members for helping in all ways that you can. Your assistance during the Master’s programme course is much appreciated. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION AND CERTIFICATION...................................................................i DEDICATION…….......................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..........................................................................................iii TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................iv LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................ix LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………..…...…xi ACRONYMS...............................................................................................................xii ABSTRACT………………………….……………………………...……..…….....xiii CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................................1 INTRODUCTION………….……………….………....................................................1 1.1 Background to the study...........................................................................................1 1.2 Statement of Problem...........................…................................................................4 1.3 General Objective……………………………….…………………..……….…….5 1.3.1 Specific Objectives..........................................................................................5 1.4 Research Questions..................................................................................................6 1.5 Significance of the Study.........................................................................................6 1.6 Scope of the Study.................................…...............................................................7 1.7 Limitations of the Study...........................................................................................7 1.8 Organisation of the Study.........................................................................................7 CHAPTER TWO............................................................................................................9 LITERATURE REVIEW...............................................................................................9 2.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................9 2.2 Theoretical Framework ...........................................................................................9 2.2.1 Community Development Theory...................................................................9 v 2.2.2 Participatory Theory………..…………………………..…………………..12 2.3 Review of Concepts and Key Terms……………………………...………...……14 2.4 Definition of NGOs………………………………………..……………………..14 2.5 Historical background of NGOs………………………………..…….……...…...16 2.6 Roles of NGOs……………………………………………………..………...…..18 2.6.1 Role of NGOS in education…………..……………..…………………......18 2.6.2 Role of NGOs in health……………………………...……..…………........19 2.6.3 Role of NGOs in the provision of water……………..………..…………...20 2.6.4 Role of NGOs in the provision of employment opportunities…………..…21 2.6.5 Role of NGOs in the promotion of human rights…………………….....….22 2.6.6 Role of NGOs in the promotion of local governance………………………23 2.6.7 Role of NGOs in the promotion of gender equality……………...…….…..24 2.6.8 Role of NGOs in agriculture…………….………………..……...………...24 2.7 Types of NGOs…………………………………………..………..……………..25 2.7.1 NGO types by orientation……………………………..……..…………….26 2.7.2 NGO types by level of operation……………………….………………..…27 2.8 Concept of development…………………………………………...….………….27 2.9 Social development…………………………………………………...………….28 2.10 Community participation in development interventions……..……….…….…..30 2.11 NGOs and social development…………………….…………….…….…….….32 2.12 Challenges that NGOs face………………………………..…………….….…..33 2.12.1 Lack of funds……………………………….…………...…………….….33 2.12.2 Absence of Networking……………………………………………….….33 2.12.3 Lack of Maintenance………….…..……………….………...………..….34 2.12.4 No Strategic Planning………...…………………………………….….....34 vi 2.12.5 Limited Capacity…...……………………….….…………………….....34 2.12.6 Relationships of NGOs with INGOs………..…………………………...34 2.12.7 Poor ..Governance………………………………….....……………….....35 2.12.8 Development Approaches……………………………… .…………...…35 2.12.9 Political Interference………………………….….……….……………...35 2.13 Project Planning………………………………………………………...……....36 2.14 Project Implementation…………………………………………..……….….…37 2.15 Monitoring and Evaluation of Projects…………………………...………….…39 2.16 Empirical Review………………….……………..……………………………..41 2.17 Summary……………….…………………………………..…………………...52 CHAPTER THREE............................................................……….............................53 METHODOLOGY................…………......................................................................53 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................53 3.2 Study Design……………………..........................................................................53 3.3 Study Setting..........................................................................................................54 3.3.1 Education…………………….……………….………………………….…56 3.3.2 Health Services…………………….….…………………………………....56 3.3.3 Recreation and Tourism…………………...……….….…………….……..56 3.3.4 The Traditional Festival……………………...……….………….………...56 3.3.5 Beads and Artisans Village…………………...……………..……….…….57 3.3.6 The Kpong Tilapia Beach…………...………………….……….………....57 3.3.7 Natural Treasures…….………………..……………….…………..….…...57 3.3.8 Climate……………………………………..………………………..…..…57 3.3.9 Physical and Natural Environment………………...……………..……..….58 3.3.10 Conditions of the Built Environment………………………..…..….….…59 vii 3.3.11 Water Security…………………………………..……………....………...60 3.3.12 Challenges of the municipality…….…………...………………..………..60 3.4 Study population………………............................................................................61 3.5 Sample and Sampling Procedure….……………………………………………...61 3.6 Sources of Data…………………………………………………………..………62 3.7 Research Instrument…………………………………….………..………………62 3.7.1 Pilot-Testing of the Research Instrument……………...………..….………62 3.8 Data Collection Techniques…………………………………...…………………63 3.9 Data Analysis Procedure………………………………………...……………….63 3.10 Ethical Considerations…………………………………………………...……...64 CHAPTER FOUR........................................................................................................65 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..................................................................................65 4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................65 4.2 Demographic Data of respondents…………………………..…………………...65 4.3 Various interventions undertaken by NGOs in the municipality within the last decade………………………………………………………………………………...68 4.4 List of interventions NGOs in the municipality have provided………………………………………………………….……….………......73 4.5 Views of community members on the various interventions undertaken by NGOs in the municipality…………………………………….………………………...……83 4.6 Views of community members with respect to their participation in development interventions undertaken by NGOs in the municipality………….…………....……..86 4.7 Challenges NGOs in the municipality face in their service delivery………...…..94 4.8 Conclusion…………………………………………………...….………………..97 CHAPTER FIVE..........................................................................................................98 viii SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ………….................98 5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................98 5.2 Summary of Key Findings.....................................................................................98 5.3 Conclusion……...……….....................................................................................101 5.4 Recommendations.………………………………………....………..……….....102 5.3 Suggestions for Future Researchers……………………………..……………...103 REFERENCES..........................................................................................................104 APPENDICES............................................................................................................117 Appendix A: Interview schedule for community members.......................................117 Appendix B: Questionnaire for Non-Governmental Organisations..........................120 Appendix C: Focus Group Discussion Guide……………………………………....123 ix LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Demographic Data of NGO staff…………….….………………………….65 Table 2: Demographic Data of community members……………...………...………66 Table 3: Responses from the NGO staff on interventions in the last decade………...68 Table 4: Responses from the community members on interventions in the last decade…..68 Table 5: Educational interventions listed by NGO Staff….…………….……………73 Table 6: Educational interventions listed by community members……………....….74 Table 7: Health Services listed by NGO staff……. ……………….………..……….75 Table 8 Health Services listed by community members …………………….…..…..75 Table 9 Water facilities listed by NGO staff….……………..……………….………76 Table 10 Water facilities listed by community members ….……………...…………76 Table 11 Employment opportunities listed by NGO staff …..…………….…………77 Table 12 Employment opportunities listed by community members …….…....…….77 Table 13 Promotion of human rights identified by NGO staff…………………...…..78 Table 14 Promotion of human rights identified by community members.…………..78 Table 15 NGO staffs’ response on promotion of local governance ………..………..79 Table 16 Community members’ response on promotion of local governance ….......79 Table 17 NGO staff’s response on promotion of gender equality ….……………….80 Table 18 Community members’ response on promotion of gender equality ….…….80 Table 19 Interventions in agriculture listed by NGO staff ………………….….……81 Table 20 Interventions in agriculture listed by community members…....……….….81 Table 21 Community members’ level of satisfaction with NGO interventions…...…83 x Table 22 Responses from NGOs on involvement of community members in planning……………………………………………………………………………....86 Table 23 Responses from community members on their involvement by NGOs in planning..................................................................................................................…..87 Table 24 Responses from NGO staff on implementation of activities…….……………………………………………………...……………...…89 Table 25 Reponses from community members on implementation of activities……......…………………………………………………………………….89 Table 26 Responses from NGO staff on monitoring and evaluation of projects ………………………………………………………………………….……….……91 Table 27 Responses from community members on monitoring and evaluation of projects ……………………………………………………………………………....91 Table 28 Views of NGO staff on challenges faced by NGOs ……………………………………………………………...………………………...94 xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1- Map of Lower Manya Krobo Municipality…………………….………….55 xii ACRONYMS NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations IOM International Organisation for Migration CD Community development UN United Nations INGOs International Non-Governmental Organisations OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development CSO Civil Society Organisation CBOs Community-Based Organisations YMCAYoung Men's Christian Association YWCA Young Women's Christian Association WBS Work Breakdown Structure M&E Monitoring and Evaluation MIS Management Information Systems BECE Basic Education Certificate Examination UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation CLAP Community Learning Assistance Program ADT Alternative Development Theory DAC Development Assistance Committee HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences xiii ABSTRACT The study therefore focused on examining the role of NGOs in promoting social development in rural Ghana using Lower Manya Municipality as a case. The study relied on the mixed methods approach and involved a total of 115 respondents who were mainly community members and NGO staff. Questionnaire, interview schedule and focus group discussion guide were used for data collection. The study found that that NGOs in the municipality had provided interventions in mostly education, health and provision of water and a few employment creation, gender equality and agriculture. Community members were generally satisfied with interventions in education, health and water provision with specific interventions like building schools, health education and screening and provision of boreholes. The promotion of human rights and local governance were not really focused on by these NGOs. With regard to the involvement of community members in the stages of project implementation, the study showed that NGOs in the municipality were doing well in that. It was also realised that NGOs had challenges in getting funds for their interventions, limited capacity, their relationships with international NGOs and political interference. It was therefore recommended that NGOs should strengthen ties with International NGOs (INGOs) and government institutions and this will go a long way to solve most of their problems. They should also involve community members from the planning stages through implementation to monitoring and evaluation. xiv １ CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study Globally, there seems to be a great disparity between the rural areas and the urban areas not only in terms of population and but also development and economic areas. Onibokun (1987) as cited in Enyioko (2012) further argues that in terms of economic development, quality of life, access to opportunities, facilities and amenities, standard of living and general liveability, the gap between urban and rural areas in Nigeria is wide. As Thomas (2000) indicates, development has now come to be seen far more in terms of “practice and intervention within the context of liberal capitalism”. However some argued that the greatest challenge to development is the fact that public institutions and services are usually fragmented or encumbered by bureaucratic tendencies and remain limited hence the need for non-state actors. Lewis and Kanji (2009) have strongly argued that Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have been central to development practice and are likely to remain important actors in development in the years ahead. This is especially true in the developing world where most governments are faced with a lot of challenges especially financial constraints and cannot tackle all development projects on their own. This assertion is further supported by Hussain (2009) who states that the importance of NGOs in the development process of countries is attaining greater importance. Scholars also argue that NGOs have successfully facilitated implementation of needs based development albeit in a rural context. Hussain (2009) makes the assertion that most developmental interventions of governments and other state institutions have focused predominantly on the economic ２ development of communities while neglecting the social issues. In this regard, the role of NGOs cannot be overstated, this is because most NGOs focus on the provision of services which may not be easily quantifiable per economic indicators. This is important taking into consideration that most NGOs rely extensively on participation of people to come up with intervention programmes. This places them in the unique position of coming out with relevant and beneficial programmes more easily appreciated by the intended recipient unlike government interventions which may purely be based on administration and political expediency. Furthermore most governments interventions are centralised in nature and apply the top down approach thereby failing to accommodate the needs and priorities of the poor and the under privileged. Most of the resources given by the government lean towards the more financially stable and politically connected in society (Hussain, 2009; Huda, 1987). Non-Governmental Organisations have been prominent at the international, national and local levels in terms of their work and have done well over the years in the fight against poverty. They have therefore connected more with people in the various locations that they work in even more than the government in most cases. There are a whole lot of objectives that NGOs work towards. According to the World Bank, NGOs have been classified into two main categories and these are operational and advocacy. Willetts (2002) defines operational NGOs as those implementing projects while advocacy NGOs are concerned with holding demonstrations or campaigns to defend or promote a specific cause. Thus those into operational activities focus on developmental projects in fields like education, health, water and sanitation, agriculture, emergency relief, economic development, disaster preparedness, among other fields whereas the organisations who are into advocacy drive certain agenda concerning the lives of people they work for. Some of these are on the rights of ３ women and children and human rights issues in general and championing other areas. International NGOs like Oxford Committee for Famine Relief (Oxfam), Care, Plan, Save the Children, International Organisation for Migration (IOM), to mention a few are into the alleviation of poverty; advancing children’s rights and equality for girls; improving the lives of children through education, health care, economic empowerment, among others; who provide services to migrants and have been of great help to countries all over the world. NGOs are recognised nationally for the various roles they play in the lives of people. It is impossible to overestimate the importance of NGOs in Ghana. They play vital roles in putting measures in place in addressing the ill conditions that people face in both rural and urban areas in terms of development. They undertake activities in fields like health, agriculture, education, science & technology, among other fields and some organisations like World Vision, Action Aid, Catholic Relief Services, Adventist Development and Relief Agency, among others are a few of those in the country. So many communities have been transformed through the work of these local and foreign NGOs in the country. A lot of rural inhabitants who are beneficiaries have been saved by virtue of the activities. Scholars argue that without the health facilities built by NGOs, the boreholes they have drilled and the social interventions they have made have saved a lot of lives that would otherwise have been lost. Continuing, many women have been educated about their rights as a result of the efforts of NGOs. In short, the benefits obtained from the operations of some NGOs are numerous. Development in the Lower Manya Krobo Municipality (LMKM) appears to have stunted and stagnated over the years or not been to the levels expected of a Municipal Assembly owing to perceived underdevelopment by the government or inadequate intervention by state actors however, the presence of NGOs has remedied this to some ４ extent as NGOs have spearheaded several developmental objectives. (Programme Based Budget Estimates For 2019 Lower Manya Krobo Municipal Assembly, 2019) 1.2 Statement of Problem Ngeh (2013) defines an NGO as a charitable non-state nonreligious, non-profit and non-military associations. It is an autonomous association of people working together for a common purpose and not making returns from what they do, engaging in illegal activities and working in government offices. NGOs have always been central to the development of communities however other scholars have argued that they do not stay long in the communities that they operate. Omura et al. (2014) also argued that given their struggle to remain in existence, much of the work is temporary or at best short term leaving critics to conclude that they may not be necessarily adding value to a nation’s socio economic development especially in sub Saharan Africa. Despite the short termism of interventions by NGOs, Weerawardena et al. (2010) agree that non-profit organisations provide critical services to the society through social value creation, as well as focusing on the gaps in the society that are not addressed by corporate or government sectors which leads to eradication of poverty and generally help to address challenges that may arise as a result of challenges in infrastructure, technology, economy and social spheres. Wright (2015) argues that these interventions by NGOs have led to people craving further development in their communities. Over the years there have been several interventions in the Lower Manya Krobo Municipality however not much work has been done to ascertain the efficacy of their interventions despite the presence of several NGOs and so this raises questions as to ５ the essence of these NGOs and whether their presence is of any socio- economic gains to the LMKM. There are a number of NGOs that are into the social development of the Lower Manya Krobo municipality however, there appears to be little or no research on their activities. Some of these NGOs are Compassion International, Pencils of Promise, Growth Aid, Youth and Women Empowerment (YOWE), CELDAR, Kloma Gbi, Adolescents Friendly and Peer Educator’s Organisation, among others and they are into the care and support for needy children, provision of education infrastructure & teaching and learning materials, provision of portable drinking water & also into water and sanitation and hygiene, issues of governance, vocational skills development, sensitization on health and sanitation and economic empowerment. To a large extent the, activities of these NGOs have strengthened the trust of the communities and these NGOs and they have put smiles on the faces of many. 1.3 General Objective The overall objective of the study is to examine the various developmental interventions made by NGOs in LMKM. Specifically, the objectives are to: 1.3.1 Specific Objectives 1. Examine the various interventions undertaken by NGOs in the municipality within the last decade. 2. Ascertain the views of community members on the various interventions undertaken by NGOs in the municipality. 3. Examine the views of community members with respect to their participation in development interventions undertaken by NGOs in the municipality. ６ 4. Explore the challenges NGOs in the municipality face in their service delivery. 1.4 Research Questions The study seeks to answer the following questions: 1. What are the various interventions undertaken by NGOs in the municipality within the last decade? 2. What are the views of community members on the various interventions undertaken by NGOs in the municipality? 3. What are the views of community members with respect to their participation in development interventions undertaken by NGOs in the municipality? 4. What challenges do NGOs in the municipality face in their service delivery? 1.5 Significance of the Study There is a lot of research on the role of NGOs in development, however there appears to be rather limited information on NGO involvement in development in Ghana. Specifically there is scant information on Lower Manya Krobo. This research will be beneficial because the government effort in development is augmented by NGOs and is therefore going to help ascertain the extent to which the NGO involvement is vital and help provide valuable insight which can be used by NGOs in future in planning development interventions. This will also add to the literature of the municipality. The findings of this research will also serve as a reference material for other researchers who would want to conduct studies on social development in the Lower Manya Municipality. Additionally, it will serve as a guide to the municipal assemblies ７ and NGOs on the policies to adopt in order to improve the living standards of people in communities. Lastly it will serve as a guide to policy makers, development partners and the general public on the activities of NGOs in the rural areas and the country as a whole. 1.6 Scope of the Study The research sought to examine the developmental interventions that have been made by various NGOs within the LMKM and also seek to identify the extent to which these have impacted the socio-economic status of residents of the communities in LMKM. It also sought to identify the extent to which indigenes are allowed to participate in the planning and discharge of the developmental projects by the NGOs. The study focused on the NGOs in the Lower Manya municipality and the developmental programmes they have been undertaking in the past decade, to find out of what community members think about those interventions and how they have been involved in the planning and implementation of those. It is also to find out the challenges faced by these NGOs in providing the services to the communities. The study focused on the NGOs in the Lower Manya municipality from 2011 to 2021. 1.7 Limitations of the Study This research will add to the body of knowledge that exist on NGO involvement in development however a possible limitation is that it only examines the LMKM and so not all findings will be applicable to other communities. The use of qualitative measures makes the findings more subjective and therefore may not be generally applicable. Time constraints and challenges associated with COVID-19 pandemic hindered more effective participation of some respondents. ８ 1.8 Organisation of the Study This work is divided into five chapters. The first chapter looks at the introduction, statement of problem, the purpose of the study, research questions, significance of the study, scope, limitations and the study’s organisation. Chapter two is designed for the review of the related literature. In chapter three, the research methods used in data collection for the study will be described. It deals with the population and sample, research instruments, research design, data collection procedure and analysis. Chapter four will deal with the data presentation, data analysis and discussion of data. Chapter five also presents the summary of the findings, conclusions and recommendations. ９ CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter provides the theoretical framework that the study is based on and a detailed analysis of existing literature that is to bring to bear the study and works of others, the conceptual framework and empirical review. It also considers the definition of NGOs, the historical background of NGOs, their roles in various fields, the types that exist and their roles in social development. In addition, the chapter assesses NGOs and social development in Ghana and the challenges that they face in their work. This review establishes the theoretical basis for the study and highlights gaps in the empirical investigations upon which the conceptual framework is based. 2.2 Theoretical Framework There are many macro level theories with implications for direct practice however, I believe that the theory of Community Development is the best and effective framework for social workers pursuing long term change for individuals, communities, and societies. The community development and participatory theories were therefore adopted to guide the study. 2.2.1 Community Development Theory Community development (CD) was actively promoted throughout the developing world during the first development decades of the 1950s and 1960s as part of the state building process and as a means of raising living standards by governments and the United Nations (UN) through its affiliated institutions as part of African independence and decolonization movements (Briggs et. al., 1997). According to Tan (2009), community development is a process where community members are supported by agencies to identify and take collective action on issues which are important to them. １０ Community development is a comprehensive strategy based on the ideas of empowerment, human rights, inclusiveness, social justice, self-determination, and collective action. Community members are regarded as experts in their communities where communal knowledge and wisdom are valued. Bonye et al. (2013) assert that given that CD aims at invoking collective interests and aspirations for both individual and group benefits, participation is the driving force of CD. However, the pursuit of community participation, whether as a demand of citizenship or a strategy of governments or organisations, has a peculiar intrinsic value if community members are to own and sustain development. The quest for encouraging and promoting community participation has engaged the attention of several researchers and development practitioners. Community development empowers community members and creates stronger and more connected communities. It emphasizes the importance of oppressed individuals in overcoming externally imposed societal problems. At its core, social work has a lot in common with the principles of community development. Community members lead community development initiatives at every level, from agreeing on concerns to selecting and executing solutions, as well as evaluating them. Community Development places an explicit emphasis on power redistribution in order to address the root causes of inequality and disadvantage (Tan, 2009). Mendes (2008) also defines community development as the employment of community structures to address social needs and empower groups of people. The distinctive emphasis on the use of community structures in the process of transformation derived from the sociological foundations of Community Development Theory, as opposed to the psychology-based theories of micro level social work １１ practice. These structures and the people of the community, when they are adequately engaged and empowered, the function of the social worker in a Community Development framework falls strongly on the facilitator side of the expert-facilitator continuum. Community Development Theory is offered as a paradigm capable of bridging the micro-macro gap in social work; its principles have consequences for how clinicians see and connect with clients, as well as how social workers might strive to effect large scale change in a community. The absence of proof of efficacy is the most convincing critique of Community Development Theory and its relevance to current and future social work practice. In an era of political accountability, limited funding resources, and a continuous emphasis on evidence based practice, some in the field would claim that services based only on a Community Development framework are no longer viable and is unlikely that financing will be obtained (Tan, 2009). While this is a valid issue, Community Development oriented social service agencies do exist and will continue to support the theory and framework because of the value it provides to the persons and communities they serve. There is a bright and exciting future for the fusion of social work and community development, but this link will necessitate two interconnected conceptual transformations in the social worker’s thinking and beliefs. To begin, community development social workers must be willing to transfer authority and wisdom from the worker to the community and client in order to effect change. In summary, a Community Development paradigm implies that the profession will become more sensitive to a role for social work that is more concerned with organizing self-help rather than delivering direct treatment. The job of the social worker is not discarded, but rather reshaped, as a result of the empowerment, １２ education, and training of indigenous leaders. A bold and contemporary Community Development social worker must be willing to take that risk (Tan, 2009). 2.2.2 Participatory Theory A participatory approach is one in which everyone with an interest in the intervention has a voice, either directly or through representation. Everyone’s participation should be encouraged and appreciated, and the process should not be controlled by any one person or group, or by a single point of view. That is the ideal situation. Some people may not want to participate because they believe it takes too much time or they lack the necessary abilities. Individuals or organizations that are not asked to participate may feel excluded and insulted. The planning process may serve as a rubber stamp for previously established concepts. A truly participative approach takes into account everyone’s point of view. That doesn’t exclude individuals from questioning others’ assumptions or debating the optimal method. It does, however, imply that everyone’s opinions are valued, and it isn’t believed that experts or the well-educated inherently know what’s best (University of Kansas Center for Community Health and Development, n.d.) Similarly a participative approach implies that the person in charge of solving a problem or creating an invention includes individuals who will be directly affected by the outcome of his or her work. The choice of a participatory method is supported both pragmatically and by the pursuit of a democratic ideal. The pragmatic goal is to improve the players’ experience, intellect, and inventiveness in the face of irreducible ambiguity (Hazard & Audouin, 2016). The phrase participatory approach has become a frequently promoted methodological concept for intervention practice in discourses about sustainable development, and a １３ variety of participatory methodologies, procedures, and strategies have been developed to operationalize it. Despite significant variations, the various methods have one thing in common; they all see the process in which players are purportedly involved as one of planning, decision-making, and or social learning (Cees, 2000). According to Waishbord (2001), participatory theories criticized the modernization paradigm on the ground that it promoted a top down ethnocentric and paternalistic view of development. They contended that the strategic model provided a view of development connected with a Western vision of progress. The top down approach of persuasive models implicitly assumed that government and agency information was right, and that indigenous communities were either uninformed or held erroneous ideas. Community members’ participation is increasingly regarded as critical to achieving long term development. Involving and educating users assists in ensuring that the identified problems and solutions really reflect the requirements and preferences of the community. This improves the likelihood that solutions implemented will be adopted. Representatives from all local stakeholders are brought together in a participative approach. This is frequently a varied collection of users, health workers, non-governmental organizations, and so on, who may not normally work together, may come from various backgrounds, and may have different beliefs and interests (Akvopedia, 2020). At all stages of planning, participatory techniques can be used. However, the amount and character of engagement by various players (beneficiaries, citizens, elected public officials, professionals and civil servants, and other stakeholders) may differ. It should be noted here that public participation in societal governance is the topic of history １４ and is critical to every democratic society. However, the term participation may be interpreted in a variety of ways, and the amount or intensity of involvement by diverse groups of actors can likewise vary considerably (Dinbabo, 2003). 2.3 Review of Concepts and Key Terms In various geographical locations, NGOs assume and serve various roles. As a result, the geographical and historical contexts of the origins of NGOs varied. As a result, the term ‘NGO’ has many different meanings and definitions and also work in diverse areas in societies. This section examines the terms and terminology associated with NGOs and the roles they play in social development. It considers some definitions of NGOs, their historical background and the literature on the functional roles of NGOs (roles in education, health provision, water, employment opportunities, human rights, local governance, gender equality and agriculture). It also explores the types of NGOs (by orientation and level of operation), the concept of development, social development, community participation development interventions and NGOs and social development. The challenges (like lack of funds, absence of networking, lack of maintenance, no strategic planning, limited capacity, relationships with international NGOs, poor governance, development approaches and political interference) that NGOs face in carrying out their projects as well as the planning, implementation and monitoring and evaluation stages of projects have also been discussed. 2.4 Definition of NGOs Betsill (2015) defines NGOs as non-profit organisations that are independent of government, do not advocate violence and seek to advance public goals. As activists, １５ they raise public awareness and put pressure on governments, corporations and local communities to take more aggressive steps to reduce their carbon footprint or adapt to the impacts of climate change. Holloway (2001) referred to NGOs as a group of organisations distinct from government institutions and business organisations, the distinct feature being that they are formed to complement, supplement and offer alternatives to government development efforts. The World Bank argues that the multiplicity of NGOs defies a simple definition for them. They therefore defined NGOs as many groups and institutions that are entirely or largely independent of government and that have primarily humanitarian or cooperative rather than commercial objectives. They are private agencies in industrial countries that support international development; indigenous groups organised regionally or nationally; and member groups in villages. NGOs include charitable and religious associations that mobilize private funds for development, distribute food and family planning services and promote community organisation. They also include independent cooperatives, community associations, women’s groups and pastoral associations. Citizen groups that raise awareness and influence policy are also NGOs (Shihata, n.d.). Also NGOs are a subset of civic organizations that are technically registered with the government, earn a large percentage of their money from voluntary donations (typically alongside government funding), and are controlled by a board of trustees rather than elected representatives of a community (Edwards and Fowler, 2002). Similarly Giorgi and Giorgi (2019) posit that NGOs are actors who develop their activities independently from the state and who are able to affect the public opinion １６ considerably. They have been increasingly expanding their field of activities, including participation in various international conferences. Basically, they are characterized by being independent of the state (or in the very least they are supposed to be, ideally), not having profit and by pursuing, in most cases, well-defined objectives, such as, for example, environmental and human rights NGOs. In other words, Folger (2018) as stated in (What is a Non-Governmental Organization)? 2021) defines an NGO as a non-profit group that functions independently of any government. NGOs, sometimes called civil societies, are organised on community, national and international levels to serve a social or political goal such as humanitarian causes or the environment. On the other hand, Kuruvila (2015) concludes that NGOs are institutional entities, different from government and commercial organisations, based on six essential attributes: formal nature, non- governmental, non-profit, self-governing, voluntarism and accountability. 2.5 Historical background of NGOs Rysaback-Smith (2016) posits that the act of providing material assistance to people in need has existed throughout human history, often in the form of food or material aid provided during famine, drought or natural disaster. Yet the modern concept and system of humanitarian aid as we know it; the impartial, independent and neutral provision of aid to those in immediate danger; has only existed since the mid part of the 20th century. Similarly, Wright (2011) adds that though NGOs in some form existed before the twentieth century, NGOs as we currently know them arose initially out of World War 1, and then gained prominence repairing Europe after World War II. １７ Hamilton et al. (2010) also postulate that Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) are now recognized as key third sector actors on the landscapes of development, human rights, humanitarian action, environment, and many other areas of public action, from the post-2004 tsunami reconstruction efforts in Indonesia, India, Thailand, and Sri Lanka, to the 2005 Make Poverty History campaign for aid and trade reform and developing country debt cancellation. As these two examples illustrate, NGOs are best known for two different, but often interrelated, types of activity, the delivery of services to people in need, and the organisation of policy advocacy, and public campaigns in pursuit of social transformation. The rapid growth of NGOs and aid organisations have been attributed to many causes, including increased need in the post-colonial era, the proliferation of both natural and manmade disasters and an increasingly integrated global system. However, it is important to note that this also points to a potential shift in political and governmental interest and funding, with as needed provision of assistance preferred over long term and complex developmental strategy (Mackintosh, 2000). International Non-Governmental Organisations (INGOs) have been in existence since 1839. There were 1083 NGOs by 1914, according to estimates. INGOs played a significant role in the anti-slavery and women’s suffrage movements, reaching a climax during the World Disarmament Conference. INGOs have played a significant role in advocating for sustainable development. (Nyang’au et al., 2016) NGOs have developed to support the government’s efforts to provide sustainable development, social services, and programs to its people. They have formed in both developed and developing nations to complement the state’s failings to successfully deliver services and development to all of its inhabitants. Good governance may be promoted and ensured to reach the grassroots, the poor, the marginalized, and the １８ disadvantaged in society in a fair and equal manner via the combined efforts of NGOs and interest groups (Lewis, 2018). NGOs started with bigger roles from the 1980s. Their works were brought to bare by foreign donor communities and they were distinguished because they saw them to be getting renewed results to development issues that have not been attended to by governments. NGOs started to be regarded as a cost-effective alternative to public sector service delivery in the following attempt to liberalize economies and ‘roll down’ the state as part of structural adjustment programs. The donor community internationally started to advocate for a new policy agenda which will be centred on good governance and it’s considered development results coming up from discussions between the market, government and third sector. All these occurred during the post- cold war period. NGOs therefore came to be part of an evolving civil societies which brought a lot of resources aimed at building their capacity and to change the phase of development work and practice (Lewis, 2021). 2.6 Roles of NGOs Suzuki (2000) states that NGOs may pursue change, but can equally work to maintain existing social and political systems. In some parts of the world, NGOs have gained legitimacy because they were part of struggles against dictatorship or because they provided support to independence movements from colonialism. For thinkers who desire private alternatives to the state, NGOs are regarded as part of market based solutions to policy problems. NGOs also come up with innovations and familiarise faster than national governments, thus their actions might be interpreted as demoralising government objectives (Phiri, 2021). １９ For Mitlin et al. (2005), the strength of development NGOs remains their potential role in constructing and demonstrating ‘alternatives’ to the status quo, which remains a need that has never been more pressing. The relationship of NGOs to development therefore takes many forms, and their diversity cannot be overemphasized. For some, NGOs demand attention because they can provide cost effective services in flexible ways, while for others they are campaigners fighting for change or generating new ideas and approaches to development problems. 2.6.1 Role of NGOS in education Kavaarpuo (2019) argues that education is one of the pillars for sustained and accelerated socio economic transformation of economies in the world over. Governments all over the world have therefore made efforts to enhance the education sectors of their respective economies of which Ghana is no exception. Adu-Baffoe and Bonney (2021) add that NGOs play an indispensable role in the development process in Sub-Saharan Africa. This is evident in the educational sector where most major donor organisations have increased the resources apportioned through NGOs to implement their educational programmes. One of the things that has fostered socio economic development all over the globe is education. Efforts have been made by so many governments to invest into the sector and Ghana is no exception. The government of Ghana has decided to make education accessible to all and they are doing these through its strategy to reduce poverty. These efforts made have still not conceded the intended results especially in the rural areas. Education is still facing countless problems like poor and scarce infrastructure, inadequate teachers and teaching and learning materials. Interest groups, NGOs ２０ complement the efforts of the government to provide basic necessities needed in the sector to help people realise their dreams (Kavaarpuo, 2019). Bigger organisations’ activities include education as well as other areas such as health, water and sanitation, and child protection. Smaller NGOs are more likely to specialize in one field, such as education, although they can also be established for a variety of reasons and to address a variety of educational requirements. An example is that some NGOs may focus on pre-school or nursery education, while others may offer scholarships to university students and still others may promote the development of local languages (Brophy, 2020). 2.6.2 Role of NGOs in health Anbazhagan and Anbazhagan (2016) assert that Non-governmental organisations are a basic element in the representation of the modern world. And their participation in international organisations is in a way a guarantee of the latter’s political legitimacy. From the stand point of global democratization, we need the participation of international public opinion and the mobilizing powers of non- governmental organisations. Brinkerhoff et al. (2007) also reveal that health is critically important in achieving poverty reduction and development, as well as vital to human well-being in its own right. The inclusion of health in the United Nations Development Program Health Development Index, the World Health Organisation formulation of health as a conditionality of economic development, and the World Bank’s call for an increased role of health in development activities in investing in health reflect the growing recognition of the importance of health in global socioeconomic development. The research of George Washington University’s centre for international health, as well as ２１ prior studies, have shown three principles regarding the usefulness of NGOs in improving health. • Individual health and the socioeconomic growth of communities are inextricably connected. • Well targeted health promotion activities can improve an individual’s social well- being as well as their health. • Local non-governmental organisations with members who are responsive to the community they serve are more likely to offer this connectivity by encouraging community empowerment. (Rodriguez - Garcia et al., 1994) 2.6.3 Role of NGOs in the provision of water Naughton (2017) alludes that globally, 946 million people continue to open defecate (90% of whom live in rural areas), 2.4 billion people lack access to basic sanitation (70% of whom live in rural areas), 663 million lack access to basic water sources, and diarrhea is the second leading cause of death in children under the age of five, much of which is preventable with clean water and sanitation. Water is one of the most vital natural resources, yet it is not always accessible in the appropriate place, at the appropriate time, or of right quality. Improperly disposed chemical wastes from the past, rain water runoff, poorly maintained septic systems, and a variety of land disturbing activities all contribute to today’s difficulties with water quality and quantity. According to the World Health Organization, Water for Life represents not just that no one can survive without clean drinking water, but also that access to quality water affects everyone’s health, education, life expectancy, well-being, and social development in diverse ways at different ages. ２２ According to Kobusingye et al. (2017), stakeholder participation is crucial to the success of every project in any organisation and intervention. Stakeholders in a project context are typically many and have varying degrees of impact. Their involvement is arguably more important than ever because of the interconnected nature of the world. The importance of water governance and stakeholder involvement in developing and implementing solutions to the world’s urgent water concerns is gaining prominence. Over the years, United Nations entities, the World Bank, the Global Environmental Facility, the Organization for Economic Co- operation and Development (OECD), and others have joined forces with governments, academic, professional association, NGOs and members from the business sector have explored attempts to enhance water governance. These initiatives and water projects at various geographic scales demonstrate the need of sharing experiences and lessons gained in order to transmit best practices. 2.6.4 Role of NGOs in the provision of employment opportunities Hassan and Forhad (2013) argue that NGOs have attached themselves with the employment generation activities regardless of male or female gender bias. They are initiating programmes for poverty alleviation through the sustainable development activities (Babila & Järvelä, 2009). In the same regard, national public sectors in several countries are being downsized and at the same time, there is a need to find new ways of improving employment. NGOs have become an area of interest among different actors such as academicians, practitioners, taxpayers, policy implementers, planners, the unemployed and also their clients, regarding their role. The lack of sufficient job growth in the public sector and the lack of professional skills of a large section of the labour force have resulted in the growth of unemployment in some countries. NGOs play a vital role in lowering the country’s unemployment rate by ２３ providing various aspects such as short term training in which unemployed youths are taught in personal skills, e-skills, and entrepreneurial business. Furthermore, it identifies past learning so that students may attend courses to fill in knowledge gaps, and it provides placement standards to guarantee applicants are allocated to an appropriate field placement (Helpingbrainz, 2020). 2.6.5 Role of NGOs in the promotion of human rights Human rights were first mentioned in contemporary English in the 16th century. However, it was reaffirmed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on December 10, 1948. The statement describes a worldwide charter of rights proclaimed Universal and Fundamental Liberty, which transcends national, religious, cultural, and intellectual boundaries. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights has now become a foundation of international law. Human Rights are concerned with men’s, women’s, youth’s, and children’s lives, liberty, freedom, safety, and magnificence. Government establishments are accountable to respect, protect, and fulfil human rights; therefore, they are not the only ones concerned with human rights and sustainable human development; other common associations such as human rights and socioeconomic NGOs, societies, and indigenous groups also play an important role in monitoring, defending, and supporting human rights (Islam, n.d.). Also, Marcinkutė (2011) reveals that there is a widespread attitude that human rights NGOs are altruistic organizations that work in preventing the abuses of human rights and freedoms. The national and regional human rights law (for example, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and others) are of great importance as well. In the hands of NGOs these human rights norms (national, regional, international) become a tool to achieve their goal to ensure the human rights and freedoms for everyone across the globe. NGOs involvement in ２４ human rights standard setting by a wide range of groups has had a significant impact. The International Labour Organization, the Council of Europe, and the Organization of American States are all instances of such organizations. The influence of NGO operations on standard setting carried out inside the framework of the United Nations, which is the most comprehensive and important institution for the creation and codification of international human rights norms, is, nevertheless, of the utmost significance (Van Boven, n.d.). 2.6.6 Role of NGOs in the promotion of local governance According to Uddin (2008: 3), as cited in Shava and Thakhathi (2016), good governance is a buzzword in this era and has swept public attention for the last decade. The concept is fast becoming a significant pillar in the consideration of a state’s ability to conform to universally acceptable democratic standard. Governance in a contemporary society involves a large number of participants. While the government is undoubtedly the most important player, different CSO responsibilities, particularly those linked to increasing active citizen engagement are critical in this aspect. These tasks are performed by mass media and government, which refers to the formal and institutional procedures that operate at the level of the nation state to preserve public order and promote collective action (Leung et al., 2016). Camay and Gordon as cited by Hendricks (2008) realized that NGOs should take responsibility for effective, accountable and democratic local governance, which will enhance its credibility, legitimacy and impact its constituents. The authors explained further that governing bodies in the form of a board of directors play a crucial role in organizational governance as evidenced by a number of authors. The operational techniques used to reach the target recipients vary depending on the service to be given and the institutional structure on the ground. Where NGOs have chosen to work ２５ directly with service users, their actions have often elicited a negative response from the state, since the latter seeks to function as an intermediary between non state actors and service recipients (Oyugi, 2005). 2.6.7 Role of NGOs in the promotion of gender equality Schlagel (2021) asserts that in order to alleviate global poverty, it is imperative to fight for gender equality. The President of the United Nations International Fund for Agricultural Development said, “When you invest in a man, you invest in an individual. When you invest in a woman, you invest in a community.” Women all over the world continue to struggle for equality in the workplace. Additionally, women often bear the burden of completing domestic responsibilities and unpaid labour. Eugenia De Rosa (2014) mentioned that historically NGOs and civil society organizations have engaged actively in the development of new forms of gender categorizations, gender sensitive data and gender analysis, mainly within a human rights framework. A thriving civil society is an essential component of a democratic society. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a significant role. Citizens’ needs and interests are articulated, governments are held responsible, change is advocated for, research is conducted, constituencies are developed and mobilized, and direct services are provided (Woroniuk & Schalkwyk, 1999). 2.6.8 Role of NGOs in agriculture According to available data, governments have dedicated significant resources to the restructuring of rural sectors. However, the rural dwellers are unsatisfied with the government’s efforts and desires greater attention. This scenario has inspired individuals and groups to create NGOs in order to make an attempt to improve the lives of rural inhabitants (Njoku et al., 2002). Similarly, George (2020) mentions that ２６ non-governmental organisations help in the improvement of farmers awareness and agricultural knowledge through extension services found all across Africa so what this means is that these bodies help to train farmers and to educate them on the innovation of improvement based on varieties of all breeds of animals that are resistant to certain diseases found in certain areas of the Continent. NGOs have also created novel distribution strategies that rely on farmer to farmer interaction, whether in a group or individually. Watershed development, vermicomposting, bio fertilizer production training, microfinance, agricultural cooperatives, farm produce groups, extension services, and other important projects were undertaken by NGOs to help farmers grow their produce (Kumar Garg, 2021). 2.7 Types of NGOs It is not possible for observers to get a better knowledge of NGOs by categorizing them. We can differentiate between various activities, but certain NGOs frequently modify the balance of the activities they undertake. The most prevalent difference is between operational and campaigning NGOs. In order to continue its initiatives and activities, operational NGOs must gather resources in the form of cash donations, supplies, or volunteer labour. This procedure may need fairly complicated organisation. Charity shops manned by volunteers in premises supplied at low rates and selling donated products end up giving funding to the national headquarters. Major fund-raising activities need expertise in advertising, media relations, and inspiring supporters. Thus, effective NGOs must have an efficient headquarters bureaucracy in addition to operational employees on the ground. (Willetts, n.d.) ２７ Campaigning NGOs will provide many of the same roles, but with a different balance. Fundraising is still required, albeit on a lesser scale, and it can serve the symbolic purpose of increasing contributors’ connection with the cause. It is important to persuade individuals to contribute their time, but it is also necessary to be able to mobilize huge numbers for short periods of time. External contributors may not incur onerous administrative obligations, but supporters must still be kept up to date on a regular basis. Major events will seek good public relations rather than money (Willetts, n.d.). 2.7.1 NGO types by orientation According to William (1991), Charitable Orientation is sometimes characterized as a top-down paternalistic endeavour with little engagement from the ‘beneficiaries.’ It comprises non-governmental organisations whose operations are aimed at fulfilling the needs of the poor, such as the distribution of food, clothes, or medication, as well as the provision of housing, transportation and schools. NGOs of this type may also provide relief services in the event of a natural or man-made disaster. Service Orientation refers to non-governmental organizations that provide services such as health, family planning or education. The program is created by the NGO, and individuals are expected to engage in its implementation as well as in receiving the service. Participatory Orientation is defined by self-help initiatives in which local people are involved specifically in project execution by donating funds, tools, land, materials, labour, and so on. Participation in a traditional community development project begins with defining the need and continues through the planning and execution stages. Cooperatives are frequently participative in nature (William, 1991). ２８ The goal of Empowering Orientation is to assist impoverished people get a better knowledge of the social, political, and economic issues impacting their lives, as well as to increase their awareness of their own potential ability to govern their life. Sometimes these groups form organically around a problem or topic, and other times workers outside the non-governmental organizations field play a facilitating role in their development (William, 1991). 2.7.2 NGO types by level of operation Community-Based Organisations (CBOs) are formed by individuals acting on their own initiative. Sports groups, women’s organisations, neighbourhood organisations, religious or educational organisations are examples of these. There are several of them, some funded by NGOs, national or international NGOs, or bilateral or international organisations, and others that are self-sufficient. Some are dedicated to raising the awareness of the urban poor or assisting them in understanding their rights to necessary services, while others are involved in delivering such services (Ngeh, 2013). Organisations such as the Rotary or Lions Club, chambers of commerce and industry, coalitions of business, ethnic, or educational groups, and alliances of community organisations are examples of citywide organisations. Some exist for other reasons and get involved in assisting the poor as one of many activities, whilst others are formed for the exclusive goal of aiding the poor. National NGOs include organisations such as the Red Cross, YMCAs/YWCAs, professional associations, and so on. Some of them have state and other branches that help local NGOs. International NGOs range from secular organisations such as Save the Children to religiously driven organisations such as OXFAM, CARE, the Ford and Rockefeller ２９ Foundations. Their operations range from mostly supporting local NGOs, institutions, and projects to actually carrying out the initiatives themselves (Ngeh, 2013). 2.8 Concept of development Many NGOs’ agendas include a significant component of development. Non- governmental organisations play an essential role in the development landscape, where they have amassed a wealth of information. They are high-profile development actors that serve disadvantaged persons and communities while also advocating for policy reforms. Much of their work is aimed at improving community capacity through education, technical assistance, experience exchange, research, and policy advice. Nonetheless, there is widespread dissatisfaction with their role, impact, and intentions in some quarters (Phiri, 2021). According to Rabie (2016), development is basically an economic concept that has positive connotations; it involves the application of certain economic and technical measures to utilize available resources to instigate economic growth and improve people’s quality of life. In the 1950s and 1960s, development was largely referred to as economic growth, which meant a quantitative rather than qualitative change in economic performance. Consequently, development theories were designed to activate and accelerate the process of economic growth and move developing nations along the path charted by the industrial ones of the West, from relying primarily on agricultural activity to relying primarily on industrial production and trade. Daley (2021) also defined development as bringing about social change that allows people to achieve their human potential. An important point to emphasise is that development is a political term: it has a range of meanings that depend on the context ３０ in which the term is used, and it may also be used to reflect and to justify a variety of different agendas held by different people or organisations. 2.9 Social development Studies that have been conducted quite recently in social development have emphasized the need for a more dynamic and comprehensive approach to building social development models. This is due to the contradiction of the notion of social development framework itself, as well as its features, definitions and dimensions. Furthermore, the majority of existing social development frameworks are incompatible and insufficient to capture the dynamic of social growth. One of the most important contemporary issues in the creation of a social development framework is the emphasis on the physical and material dimensions at the expense of non-material components (Adam et al., 2019). Social development is concerned with change processes that result in advances in human well-being, social interactions, and social institutions that are equitable, sustainable, and consistent with democratic governance and social justice ideals. According to the World Bank, social development entails the restructuring of institutions in order to empower individuals (World Bank, 2005). Midgley (2014) defines social development as the human interactions and the complex phenomena that arise from the specific interactions like a large number of groups and associations including the family, neighborhood associations, formal organizations, communities, and even societies which also give rise to social networks, values, cultures, and institutions. Also the goal of social development is to improve the wellbeing of all individuals in society so that they can attain their maximum potential. The wellbeing of each ３１ individual is tied to the progress of society. Investing in people is a key component of social development. It necessitates the elimination of impediments so that all citizens can pursue their ambitions with confidence and dignity. It is about refusing to accept that impoverished people will always be poor. It is about assisting individuals so that they can progress on their path to self-sufficiency. (New Brunswick, Canada, 2021) 2.10 Community participation in development interventions Community participation is a process by which stakeholders take control over development initiatives and the decisions which affect them. It is an active involvement of people in the decision making process, as well as the responsibilities of people in assessing the health needs, mobilizing resources and suggesting new solutions (World Bank, 1996) For the last two to three decades, many development theorists and practitioners have been debating community involvement some even dubbed the 1980s the decade of participation. The present decade of social movements, NGOs and community based organizations (CBOs) are primarily an expression of organized community engagement (Botes, 2000). Osei-Kufuor and Koomson (2014) posit that community participation is assumed in policy circles as the main channel for the active involvement of community members in shaping the outcomes of the development projects. Odoom et al. (2018) indicate that NGOs have been a dominant participant in the development process throughout the world. Particularly in Africa, participation has assumed even greater relevance given the complementary, or occasionally ３２ supplementary role NGOs play to that of government in social development. It is widely conceived that for NGOs’ presence to be hugely felt by the beneficiaries, there is the need to pay serious attention to the issue of participation by community members. There is a growing concern that NGOs in Africa would struggle to accomplish significant and long term improvement in the lives of their beneficiaries unless community people actively participate in their development programs and initiatives. It stands to reason that the lack of a clear definition of community members’ engagement in the development operations of NGOs in Africa has resulted in unregulated, disorganized, and inefficient development initiatives. (Odoom et al., 2018) People’s needs must be prioritized in development efforts. In practice, however, meaningful engagement in programs that promote community empowerment is a long way off. The projects are carried out with the participation of the community in order to provide chances for local people to engage in project planning, decision making, project implementation, resource allocation, and distribution of resources (Rashied & Begum, 2016). The community development process is a cycle in which involvement is required at all stages of the development effort for the interventions to be effective. To begin, community organizing entails mobilizing the target group and identifying issues. Interventions for sustainable development are discovered through mobilization and creating awareness. Following that, the community visioning and planning process begins, in which the community determines its future vision. The visioning process produces a desirable end state for the community as well as a vision for the future to ３３ strive for (Green, 2007). The development of the community’s vision and planning and the stage of implementation is when the real essential action and processes are performed in order to fulfil the goals and objectives. The goal of monitoring is to offer feedback on whether or not the action plan needs to be tweaked (Green, 2007). Various scholars and organizations have demonstrated the relevance of community and its participation in the development process. The following are some of the issues connected to the significance of community involvement in the development process. For starters, it involves the community in decision-making processes that directly influence their lives. It also reassured citizens about the community and overall growth. As a result, it is critical to the development of an empowered and accountable community (Columbia University, 2015). Secondly, community engagement in the planning process fosters a sense of ownership. It gives them a sense of ownership since they believe it is their own progress. This sense of ownership does not emerge from a top down approach. Also, community engagement ensures the continuation of the development process and therefore ensures long term growth. People are active in community work from the planning to the implementation stages. It fosters reciprocal cooperation between the government, donors and communities resulting in appropriate development (Columbia University, 2015). 2.11 NGOs and social development Resources for development are channelled through NGOs in all fields and they in turn use them to improve upon the lives of people, alleviate poverty and of which the civil societies are so developed that they normally rely on the funds from international donors and these have seen the number of NGOs spread out all over the world. NGOs have played a significant role in international efforts to promote sustainable ３４ development. Campaigning organisations have been important drivers of inter- governmental talks on issues ranging from hazardous waste management to a global ban on land mines and the abolition of slavery (Nyang’au et al., 2016). Phiri (2021) believes NGOs have become an integral part of the international aid architecture and contribute to the implementation of the multilateral aid agenda. Joint partnerships between governments, NGOs and the private sector are crucial to the development trajectory of any country. NGOs are central to development theory and practice and are likely to remain important actors for years to come. Since the late 1980s, non-governmental organisations have played a far larger and more visible role in the development scene than they had previously. Donors praised NGOs for their ability to solve difficult and long standing development issues. The increased focus on NGOs at this period resulted in numerous far reaching changes in development thought and practice as a result of renewed interest in the alternative notions like participation, empowerment, gender, and a variety of people oriented approaches. 2.12 Challenges that NGOs face Kimberly Nicole Yu cited in the article AsianNGO and Kirongo (2010) have discussed the challenges that NGOs face. 2.12.1 Lack of funds An NGO’s purpose is not only to complete a project but would like to keep touch with its beneficiaries and ensure that continued progress is made. Aside that, NGOs would like to be able to assist more individuals and communities based on their needs. To do so, NGOs must continually raise funds. In some situations, they get complacent and merely wait for donations or development partners to support them. This practice will have no bearing on an NGO’s success. Although partner organisations and supporters ３５ will wish to continue supporting an NGO’s goals, they may see greater promise in other organisations and choose to finance them instead. Lack of money not only makes it difficult to complete initiatives, but it also puts NGOs in risk due to the high running costs. 2.12.2 Absence of Networking One point of view is that NGOs should collaborate to achieve their aims more efficiently. However, some non-governmental organizations regard it as a sort of competition. For whatever reason, some NGOs feel that collaborating with other NGOs or organisations will increase their competitiveness when asking for funds. 2.12.3 Lack of Maintenance Many developing nations suffer from a lack of infrastructure, and non-governmental organisations feel that people deserve a better level of living. As a result, several NGOs have opted to solve this issue by establishing communities that benefit a large number of people. Initially, benefits are visible, and individuals live happier lives. However, it should be noted that not all communities are capable of maintaining the same standard of living that was expected of them. The improvements to their living conditions may only be transitory if adequate upkeep is not provided. Furthermore, having a number of initiatives that do not provide long-term outcomes will have an impact on your NGO’s ability to raise funding. Grant making organisations will prefer to donate to those who can demonstrate their ability to undertake and sustain long- term project. 2.12.4 No Strategic Planning Many brilliant ideas might strike at times, but they can also generate into confusion and lead you astray from your original aim. Although many brilliant ideas are ３６ generated, they do not always adhere to the goals that have been established (Kirongo, 2010). 2.12.5 Limited Capacity Many NGOs realise that they have limited technical and organisational ability. Few NGOs can or will pay for such capacity building. Weaknesses in fundraising, governance, technical development areas, and leadership and management were highlighted. Some NGOs believed that the presence of quality standards would help them acquire the necessary skills. The rate at which technology evolves is also a challenge, particularly in sectors requiring Information Technology capability. 2.12.6 Relationships of NGOs with INGOs Local NGOs are concerned that the titans, INGOs, in particular, take up so much space that it is difficult to find place for them. INGOs frequently interfere without regard for the development of sustainable local CSOs. They compensate government and community people for their participation in their initiatives, but local NGOs do not have the ability to do so. Short-term project approaches that are not locally viable are also seen to drive INGOs. They provide competitive compensation and recruit employees from local non-governmental organisations. They are also accountable for the high-cost image that weakens the sector’s credibility. It is difficult and improper for local non-governmental organisations to compete with multinational and national behemoths. 2.12.7 Poor Governance Good governance is difficult to accomplish when founders want to possess the NGOs for their own purposes. Many NGOs mismanage their resources on regular basis, thanks to the engagement and support of their Boards, which squander the NGOs’ ３７ resources. It might be tough to find Board members if you are unwilling to pay them or give allowances (Kirongo, 2010). 2.12.8 Development Approaches Many NGOs continue to focus on what some refer to as the ‘hardware’ approach to development, that is the construction of infrastructure and the provision of services, rather than what others refer to as the ‘software’ approach of enabling people and local institutions to govern their own affairs. Other NGOs appear to be oblivious of changes in the role of government, the shifting aid paradigm, and the efficacy of a “rights-based” rather than “welfare-based” strategy. While it is getting more difficult to fund and sustain service delivery activities, most local NGOs continue to pursue them. Poverty and illiteracy rates in the community remain high. 2.12.9 Political Interference In certain areas, NGO leaders cited local politicians and civic leaders as a key impediment to their work. Local leaders can intervene when NGOs are involved in sensitive topics such as land conflicts. NGOs are being threatened with deregistration. NGOs are unaware that the Board and maybe the Council exists to safeguard them from such harassment (Kirongo, 2010). 2.13 Project Planning Planning is a critical component of project performance and success. It is a continuous process that occurs throughout the course of a project’s completion (Idoro, 2012). Cleland & Ireland (2006, p. 265) as cited in Naeem et al. (2018) postulates that the process of planning through what’s more, making unequivocal the targets, objectives, and procedures important to bring the project through its lifecycle to a fruitful end ３８ when the project’s item, management, or process assumes its legitimate position in the execution of project proprietor methodologies. The planning phase is when you turn your daydreams and ideas into a solid plan of action. This is the point in the project’s life cycle where attention to detail becomes crucial. It is the conceptualizer’s and project manager’s role to identify and narrow down the objectives that will move the process ahead toward the end goal. To minimize criticism and opposition to the process, it is critical that the project manager and team prepare efficiently and convey their business reasons extensively throughout the whole organization. A method for monitoring and managing the course of the project’s development must be devised during the project planning stage. This phase necessitates serious consideration on how to track the project’s growth and maintain the work flow on track. You must first prepare for management, and then manage your strategy. (Anzalone, 2000). Take some time before you start to figure out what problem the project is designed to solve. It isn’t always apparent. You may be anxious to get started on the project right away in order to address issues that you have personally encountered. You must explore beyond the signs you have identified to improve the project’s chances of success. Discover the root problems; the real issue will become clear once you determine who all of your stakeholders are that is, which functions or people may be impacted by the project’s activities or outcomes, who will contribute resources (people, space, time, tools, and money), and who will use and benefit from the project’s output. They will collaborate with you to define what success on the project entails. One of your most difficult planning responsibilities will be to combine the varied expectations of stakeholders into a logical and reasonable set of goals (Harvard Business Review, 2016). The project’s success will be determined by how successfully you accomplish those objectives. The more plainly you explain them at the start, the less controversy there will be afterwards on whether you met expectations. Many initiatives fail because they bite off more than they can chew, severely underestimating time and money, or because a large portion of the task was ３９ missed. Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), which supports in the process of identifying scope and tasks and producing estimates, is one tool that can help you avoid these pitfalls. Time, money, and quality are the three associated elements that often define what you can do. You assemble your crew during the construction process. Time estimates become schedules. Estimated costs become budgets, gather your resources, obtain obligations and fulfill them. Assemble your staff, establish your duties, and create a budget (Harvard Business Review, 2016). 2.14 Project Implementation Anzalone (2000) alludes that after the project’s planning phase, the most exhilarating and sometimes frightening phase arrives. Depending on how meticulous the planning implementation is the make-it-or-break-it part of the endeavour. During the implementation phase, the project manager will be using the highest levels of both human and physical resources. At this stage in the project’s life cycle, the budget will be spent, interpersonal conflicts and morale problems will surface, and time delays will happen. In short, this is where the true test of careful planning is most evident. Similarly the implementation phase is frequently the most satisfying since work actually gets done, but it may also be the most difficult. The intricacies may be laborious and, at times, overwhelming. Whether you have a formal project control system in place or you conduct your own frequent check-ups, try to have a big-picture perspective so that you don’t become swallowed by minutiae and minor concerns. Project monitoring software solutions can assist you in measuring your progress. There is no one size fits all solution for all tasks. Respond rapidly to changes in data or information as they come in, and seek for early warning signals of issues so you can take remedial action. Otherwise, you are only monitoring and not exerting control. Make it obvious to your team that your answers to problems will be ４０ ineffective unless you obtain timely information. However, don’t step in to repair things too fast; instead, let your team members sort out minor issues on their own. Stakeholders will expect regular updates and status reports. Consult with them to determine how much information they require and in what format (Harvard Business Review, 2016). When you’re engrossed in project specifics, it is easy to become side-tracked from important tasks and go down time wasting routes. The team can stay focused by meeting once a week and asking themselves what is critical to the project’s success on a regular basis. Create detailed meeting agendas. Try organizing them around project objectives and other performance measures you have chosen. Many of your agenda items will organically originate from objectives, project targets set, reached, or surpassed by the project. Some issues have such far reaching ramifications that they might jeopardize the project’s overall success. Time slippage, scope creep, quality issues, and personnel issues are the most prevalent. Pay attention to subtle symptoms of impending difficulties, such as increasing stress and irritability, lack of excitement, or difficulty to make judgments. When you detect these indicators, get to the bottom of the situation as soon as possible and deal with it. Don’t let it go from a little annoyance to a calamity (Harvard Business Review, 2016). The project manager and project team are responsible for monitoring and controlling the project as it progresses. A manager must guarantee that the project monitoring function continues and is sound in order to properly govern a project. During the implementation phase, the project manager and project team compare planned activities with actual work to assess the project’s progress. A project manager must be able to recognize when to substitute activities or divert the project team’s efforts with an alternate strategy. The capacity to notice a deviation from the project's blueprint in ４１ real-world progress and then improvise an alternative is based on the dependability of the controls chosen by the project manager and team (Anzalone, 2000). 2.15 Monitoring and Evaluation of Projects Monitoring and evaluation are sometimes confused to mean the same thing, however they are two different words which have separate functions. Monitoring is a continual function that strives to provide management and stakeholders with indicators of progress or lack of progress in the accomplishment of project or program results. Otieno (n.d.) posits that monitoring is viewed as a process that provides information and ensures the use of such information by management to assess project effects both intentional and unintentional and their impact. It aims at determining whether or not the intended objectives have been met. Evaluation on the other hand draws on the data and information generated by the monitoring system as a way of analysing the trends in effects and impact of the project. In some cases, it should be noted that monitoring data might reveal significant departure from the project expectations, which may warrant the undertaking of an evaluation to examine the assumptions and premises on which the project design is based. According to Edmunds and Marchant (2008), monitoring of inputs and outputs is monitoring and evaluation (M&E) at its very basic level where inputs are tracked. These inputs recorded or noted include human, physical and financial resources as well as how they are converted to outputs that is project goods and services. The indicators monitored are both financial and non-financial and are usually stored in a computer management system (MIS). At its basic level therefore monitoring is about keeping books or records of progress. ４２ Evaluation is a chosen process with the goal of deliberately and objectively assessing progress toward the accomplishment of desired ends or results. This entails assessing breadth and depth at various periods in time in response to changing demands for knowledge and learning. Evaluation should never be a one-time event or activity, but rather a continual process. In assessments, the relevance of the project and program, as well as its performance and processes, should be examined (United Nations Development evaluation Office, 2002). In the view of Atkinson (1999) and DAC (n.d.) evaluation criteria is concerned with relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, impact and sustainability. The criteria was first articulated alongside evaluation principles in 1991. The overall objective of the criteria is to support better evaluation which will then lead to sustainable development or project/program success. The assessment criteria are as follows: Relevance: In determining the relevance of a program or project, assess whether or not, and to what extent, the program’s objectives are still relevant as originally established, and whether or not activities and output are compatible with the overall goal and objectives. To find out whether actions and outputs compatible with the anticipated impacts and effects. Effectiveness is to assess effect, review what happened as a consequence of the program or project, the difference the activities made to the recipients, and the number of persons affected. Sustainability; evaluates the extent to which benefits remain when financing is terminated, as well as the variables that affected the attainment or non-achievement of sustainability. ４３ Impact: An evaluation of a program’s impact assesses what happened as a consequence of the program’s genuine difference made by activities to beneficiaries and how many individuals were affected. Efficiency: assesses outputs in proportion to inputs and, in general, necessitates a comparison of various ways. When analysing program efficiency, examine whether or not activities were cost effective, objectives were met on schedule, and the program was implemented cost effectively (Jeremiah & Kabeyi, 2018). 2.16 Empirical Review Researches have been conducted over the years on the roles that NGOs play in the development globally and nationally. The country Ghana has seen a lot of work by NGOs as well as studies conducted. These ranging from health, education, sanitation and water, economic empowerment to reduce poverty, among others. Even though much work has been done in Ghana and in all regions, not much literature is evident in the Lower Manya Municipality to show all the work that has been carried out. It therefore became necessary to look into that, review literature and to add to the already existing literature in the field. Nyang’au et al (2016) contend that in recent years more and more development resources are being channelled to and through NGOs in all sectors. NGOs work mainly to alleviate poverty, improve social welfare and develop civil society however this has increased dependency on international donors which has in turn increased the number of NGOs. International NGOs have been at the forefront of many social movements such as anti-slavery movement, women’s suffrage among others. The role of NGOs in the development of communities has been well documented. Studies add that NGOs and state need to supplement each other. Studies by Wahab (2000) established that in Zanzibar, NGOs have filled the development gap in the education ４４ sector by providing sponsorship to students in Unguja Island and also providing teaching materials, constructing schools and providing furniture as well. The research established that without these interventions the education sector would remain massively under developed. It is in this vein that Nyang'au et al (2016) contend that the role of NGO in development is indisputable and obstacles they are facing should be addressed if development is to take place. Kooli (2017), as cited in Adu-Baffoe and Bonney (2021), concludes that a decision by the Omani government about the role of infrastructure on learner readiness to learn and highlight the fact that the infrastructural gap in the Bangladeshi educational system could not be entirely handled by the central government. It was therefore imperative that the NGOS respond swiftly to the Education for All (EFA) policy put in place by the government. These NGOs were so effective that the government of Bangladesh handed over some of the most ineffective state schools to some renowned NGOs with the aim of revamping them. In Ghana, Frempong (2011) concluded that insufficient study materials was a cause of poor performance in the BECE which agrees with Okyerefo et al (2011) which showed that high performing private and public schools had access to high quality Teaching and Learning Materials. According to UNESCO (2013) studies in Nigeria, Guinea and Botswana showed that schools that received support from NGOs tended to do well. In light of this, NGOs must give support to the educational sector since government support is not enough. Some major NGOs in Ghana involved in education like Plan International have introduced a Community Learning Assistance Program (CLAP) to strengthen the schools. Action Aid International has also introduced the Shepherd Schools and Rural Education program aimed at promoting leadership in adolescent girls. Action Aid has also worked extensively in the Tamale to arrest the deficits in the educational sector. The ４５ research further highlights that NGOs provide some follow up and supervision in the distribution of resources which is not always common in the public school setup which is a major determiner of the success of interventions in the educational sector. Kooli however contends that despite these, the overall gains made by the NGOs is quite insignificant albeit important owing to the enormity of the task to be done. The research also established that while these interventions by NGOs are important in making the school experience more wholesome they do not necessarily translate into examination success (Adu-Baffoe & Bonney, 2021). Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have long played an important role in providing sanitation services to communities throughout Southeast Asia and the Pacific, particularly in rural regions. In contrast to large scale infrastructure efforts, NGO programs frequently focus on bridging the technological and social domains (Carrard et al., 2009). In the sector, the need for strong engagements with community members and processes that will foster behav