MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies i GHANA INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH (SoGSaR) TOPIC: THE IMPACT OF FEMALE PARTICIPATION IN TOP MANAGEMENT ON CORPORATE REPUTATION IN GHANA BY JOCHEBED YAA SAFO INDEX NUMBER: MAPR 19083 SUPERVISED BY DR. LOUISE CAROL SERWAA DONKOR A LONG ESSAY PRESENTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN PUBLIC RELATIONS. OCTOBER, 2020 MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies ii DECLARATION I hereby declare that this research paper is my own long essay in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Masters of Arts in Public Relations and does not have any material written and published by any researcher or submitted for any other degree of the University except where due acknowledgement has been given in this paper. Signature: …………………. Date: …………………... Name: Jochebed Yaa Safo Index Number: MAPR19083 APPROVED BY: Signature: …………………. Date: …………………. DR. LOUISE CAROL SERWAA DONKOR (SUPERVISOR) MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to first thank my supervisor, Dr. Louise Carol Serwaa Donkor for the support and guidance on this project work. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to the exceptional friends that supported me throughout the research, especially Ibs Sackey-Rockson and Hormeku Saviour. My final appreciation goes to my family for their prayers and support. The journey would have been very rough without the contribution of you all, thank you very much. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies iv DEDICATION This research work is dedicated to the Ghana Institute of Journalism for providing me the opportunity to study with their institute and pursue my dream in Public Relations. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ......................................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................................................iii DEDICATION.......................................................................................................................... .iv TABLE OF CONTENTS...........................................................................................................v-vi ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................vii CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................................2 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................2 1.0. Background of Study .................................................................................................... .....2-5 1.1. Problem Statement .............................................................................................................5-7 1.2. Aims and Objectives ..........................................................................................................7 1.2.1. General Objectives...........................................................................................................7 1.2.2. Specific Objectives................................................................................................... ........7-8 1.3. Relevance of the Study........................................................................................................8 1.4. Rationale of Study…………………………………………………………………………8 1.5. Research Questions……………………………….……………………………………….9 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................10 LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................................10 2.0 Introduction to Literature Review.........................................................................................10 2.1. The Conceptual Review…………………………………...……………………………….10 2.1.1. Corporatism…………..……………………………………………………………….10-11 2.1.2. Participation…………………………………………………………………………..…11 2.1.3. Female Representation……………………………………………..…………………11-12 2.1.4. Corporate Reputation……………………………………………………………………12 2.2. Theoretical Framework.......................................................................................................12 2.2.1. The Resource-Based Theory of Comparative Advantage……………………….……12-13 2.2.2. Feminization Theory…………..………………………………………………………13-14 2.2.3. Tokenism Theory………………………………………………………………………14-15 2.3. Review of the Literature ..................................................................................................16 2.3.1. Female Representation and Corporate Reputation........................................................16 MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies vi 2.3.2. Female Representation in the Workforce and its Effects...............................................17-18 2.3.3. Positive Effects of Increased Female Representation and Firm Performance………18-19 2.3.4. Negative Effects of Increased Female Representation and Firm Performance...…….19-21 CHAPTER THREE...................................................................................................................22 METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................................22 3.0. Introduction to Methodology.............................................................................................22 3.1. Research Design...................................................................................................................22 3.2. Data Collection…………………………………………………………………………….23 3.3. Population / Sample/Sampling Technique............................................................................24 3.4. Sampling Procedure and Sampling Size ...........................................................................24-25 3.5. Data Collection Instruments..................................................................................................25 3.6. Data Collection Procedure................................................................................................25-26 3.7. Data Analysis Procedure........................................................................................................26 3.8. Ethical Consideration........................................................................................................26-27 3.9. Limitations............................................................................................................. ................27 CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................28 CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................................28 4.1. Introduction ...........................................................................................................................28 4.2. Contribution to Literature.............................................................................................. .........28 4.3. Recommendation....................................................................................................................29 4.4 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................29-30 REFERENCES.........................................................................................................................31-40 MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies vii ABSTRACT Marginalization of females is a global phenomenon that infests the various corporate societies. The quest to consciously multiply the presence of females in work space is not only for reasons of acknowledgement or justice, but also to ensure that corporations become extra receptive in terms of females’ inclusion in Ghana. In spite of the fact that more employment of females in top management provoke many conflicts and loyalties, this paper seeks to strengthen the efforts of women in the workspace. This paper explores the impact of female participation in top management and how it enhances corporate repute in the several organizations existing in Ghana. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 2 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0. Background of the Study The foundation of a strong and appropriate corporate principle absolutely influences corporation performance and sustainability, and consequently improves economic development. Evidently with public observation, most corporations lack balance when it comes to female representation and this has reflected policy papers from various state and non-state actors to curb such act. Generally, it appears that, educated females are mostly assigned to and grouped at the lower and supervisory management levels of employment. Nevertheless, underusing the skills of highly qualified women leads to loss of economic growth (European Commission, 2012) as their functionality and capacity is underutilized. “The International Labor Organization has adopted legal protections for transnational domestic workers and for women working in factories that are engaged in global trade” (Chesler, 2020). Furthering the argument, the scholar, Chesler (2020) emphasizes that “in the workplace, women have seen few gains, and that’s simply heartbreaking. Women’s formal labor force participation has stagnated at a global rate of about 48 percent, and numerous countries that were once doing much better have witnessed declines in recent years”. Several scholars belonging to the feminist’s fraternity (e.g. Phillips, 1998; Squires, 2008) largely emphasize that women are more capable to represent the interests of their own gender. This basically means that, improvements in policy areas that are imperative to women (e.g. holding high positions in the workforce, being included in administrative measures, protection against MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 3 violence, equal pay and adequate childcare provisions) can only be achieved, if the female is represented adequately (Childs, 2008; Krook, 2009, 2010). Female representation is undoubtedly a salient venture to adopt in the business industry because it gives way for hiring from a vast pool of talents. It comes with the varying experiences and productivity from both genders that go a long way to benefit the organization. A typical instance is the robust development of Asia. The fundamental role it plays in the global economy and its most active boards are known to be the ones that are “international” and empowered with “functional, sector and gender diversity” (Yi, 2012). Corporations that are diverse in all aspects, especially gender have a positive productivity and such boards give trace to well-run companies. The dialogue on diversity pays attention to gender mostly because of the positive impact that gender equity has on general performance and productivity. Research shows that addressing gender equity and increasing female participation on corporate boards and other decision-making positions reinforce economic and social values and it goes a long way to play a pivotal role in capacity building in institutions and private sector growth (Zhang et al, 2019). Consequently, this study will be informative and will seek to bring to the forefront the need for adequate inclusion of qualified females in Ghanaian corporate governance. Gender diversity in the membership of boards and senior management of institutions could improve decision making. In appreciating the inclusion of females in all aspects of the national life, Ekow Afedzi, Deputy Managing Director of the Ghana stock exchange argues that, despite the challenges that women face in the corporate world, they have enormous responsibilities in all aspects of the development of the nation. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 4 Women can contribute special skills and expertise that complement those of men when deliberating on issues and making decisions that affect the progress of the company (Deloitte, 2015). When women are not able to do this, not only is this unjust, it is also a tremendous economic and social loss. For instance, some countries like Switzerland hold the view that Equal opportunities for women and men is one of the key concerns for development cooperation. This is realized in Swiss Secretariat for Economic Affairs (SECO), where gender equality is a key development issue for inclusive growth. It is not only the right thing to do, it is also the smart thing to do (Matthias Feldmann, Deputy Head of Mission and Head of Cooperation, Embassy of Switzerland in Ghana). Recent studies have focused on whether the effect on performance of companies that have women on boards serve to justify implementation of boardroom gender policies. Over the last couple of decades, the relevance of gender diversity in the socio-economic transformation of Ghana has attracted much attention. In regards to this, attempts have been made to turn this into a law and also provide structure for addressing gender inequalities. For example, Article 17 of the 1992 Constitution prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender. Hence, the Affirmative Action Policy of 1998 requires forty (40) percent quotas of women’s representation on all government and public boards. There is also the establishment of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection in 2013 which has shown Ghana's commitment to promote gender equity. The Ghanaian government also developed a National Gender Policy to reinvigorate its objective to uphold gender equity. However, these policies do not ideally reflect in corporate and public boards when hiring. Many corporations have their own policies on gender representation regarding management and they clearly do not follow the guidelines laid by the government. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 5 This study argues that females in Ghana need to be represented more in the corporate sphere in order to make room for gender equity and gender diversity. This would in turn not only improve the general progress of females but also help build a better reputation for corporations. 1.1. Problem Statement In 2016, a study entitled 'Gender Diversity in Ghanaian Boardrooms’, was conducted in Accra, Ghana. It was led by the Ghana Corporate Governance Programme of the International Finance Corporation (IFC). This unit is an affiliate of the World Bank Group, in collaboration with SECO, and conducted by the University of Ghana Business School (UGBS). The general objective of this study was to subsequently create a balance and objectively analyze the subjects surrounding women in the boardroom and workplace in general (businessghana.com, 2018). Nevertheless, the number of males to female staff present at any corporate function depicts we still live in a male dominated industry. Females have to work twice as hard as their male counterparts to secure their spot in corporate industries. “There is also the lack of recognition which stems from male dominance… Some women, although qualified to… deliberately shy away. This could be because some women do not want to be in the spotlight amid males, as the Ghanaian culture tends to tag assertive women as disrespectful” (Dr. Agbloyor, 2016). Females possess the qualities that are essential to the overall success and survival of corporations but their inclusion has always been unimpressive. Data shows that females hold just 1 to 3% of the top executive jobs in the largest corporations worldwide. On the surviving percentage who are in the workforce and among corporates, women still have to deal with a number of hurdles to reach top positions such as CEOs and company board MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 6 members (International Labour Organization, 2015). Studies with varying methodologies show that women face personal discrimination when going through the selection process (e.g., Goldberg, 1968; Rosen and Jerdee, 1974). Meta-analyses reveal that, when being considered for male-typed (i.e., male dominated, believed-to-be-for-men) jobs, female candidates are evaluated more negatively and recommended for employment less often by study participants, compared with matched male candidates (e.g., Hunter et al., 1982; Tosi and Einbender, 1985; Olian et al., 1988; Davison and Burke, 2000). Women are evaluated more poorly in situations that involve complex problem solving; in these situations, people are skeptical regarding women’s expertise and discredit skilled women’s opinions but give skilled men the benefit of the doubt (Thomas-Hunt and Phillips, 2004). Sometimes particular types of women are more likely to be discriminated against in selection and performance evaluation decisions. Specifically, agentic women, that is, those who behave in an assertive, task-oriented fashion, are rated as less likeable and less hirable than comparable agentic male applicants (Heilman and Okimoto, 2007; Rudman and Phelan, 2008; Rudman et al., 2012). Managers give women fewer challenging roles and fewer training opportunities, compared with men (King et al., 2012; Glick, 2013). This shows that there’s a problem where many don’t really value the impact that females bring on board to such corporate level. In this regard, this study will seek to provide evidence in relation to women in top management and how that has affected corporate reputation in order to make a claim for more female representation in corporate societies. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 7 1.2. Aims and Objectives The objectives will serve as rudimentary tools that will motivate all planning and strategic activities of the research. Objectives of the research are divided into two sectors which includes the general objective sector and the specific objective sector. 1.2.1. General Objectives The general objective states what the researcher hopes to achieve in general terms. Basically, it is the overall idea behind the chosen topic. The general objective of the study is to: Identify how the female representation rate in Ghana affects corporate reputation. 1.2.2. Specific Objectives The specific objectives of this study seek to categorize the general objective into separate logically connected parts that systematically address the various aspects of the phenomenon. These objectives will explicitly state what will be done at each stage of the study. 1. To determine the significance of female representation in Ghana and its acceptability in Corporate Ghana. 2. To assess the factors that account for female representation in the corporate industry. 3. To explore ways females can be fairly represented in the corporate environment. 4. To establish the correlation between female representation and corporate reputation. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 8 1.3. Relevance of Study This section stands to identify the extent to which the study matters; its salience and how it can contribute to national development or go a long way to solve a societal menace. This study will be set on establishing the rate of female representation in societies and how it affects or enhances corporate reputation. Findings from data analyzed will inform whether female representation rate in the Ghanaian corporate society is on a low rate or not, the role it plays in impacting upon the corporate environment and possible recommendation for further planning and decision making regarding the topic at hand. 1.4. Rationale of the Study The rationale of this study is basically the explanation of the study’s foundation or fundamental reasons behind choosing this topic. The study hopes to procure a justification or rationalization for female representation in corporate entities in Ghana in case they are lowly represented. 1.5. Research Questions 1. What is the significance of female representation in Ghana and how much is it accepted on the corporate table? 2. What factors account for female representation in the corporate industry? 3. How can females be fairly represented on the corporate scene? 4. What is the correlation between female representation and corporate reputation? MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 9 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0. Introduction This chapter discusses various thematic areas related to the subject of this study. It elaborates the varied hypothesis related to the topic and existing literature that supports or criticizes aspects of the topic. This study will focus on the three components of literature review. These components include the empirical review, the theoretical framework of the review and finally the conceptual framework. 2.1. The Conceptual Review This section deals with or elaborates the various concepts embedded in the selected topic of study. These concepts include; ❖ Corporate Society (Corporatism), ❖ Participation, ❖ Female Representation ❖ Corporate Reputation. 2.1.1. Corporatism This term refers to the organization of a society into industrial corporations with powerful vested interests in the economic, social or political decision-making process. Examples of groups of people acting jointly in their interest include business groups, various professions, trade unions, and pressure groups. It was argued that a corporatist relationship existed between employers’ MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 10 associations and trade unions, who, along with the state, were jointly involved in economic decision-making. This is relationship may have included the female employees to ensure a more productive economic success. The various interpretations of corporatism are spelled out fully in Order and Conflict in Contemporary Capitalism (1984), edited by John H. Goldthorpe, a collection of essays which is based on a series of excellent comparative studies of political and industrial conflict in advanced capitalist societies during the post 1945 era. 2.1.2. Participation Definitions of participation thrive from a number of scholars (Cohen and Uphoff 1977; Korten 1980; Paul 1987; and Ghai and Hewit de Alacantara 1990). All of them include in their definition, some measure the notions of contributing, influencing, sharing, or redistributing power and control, resources, benefits, knowledge, and skills to be gained through beneficiary involvement in decision making. There is also much debate among practitioners and in the literature about whether participation is a means or an end, or both (World Bank 1992; Picciotto 1992). 2.1.3. Female Representation It is well known that economic and social development, among many other factors, depend upon a rational exploitation of human resources endowment (Austen, 2005). However, the level of participation of women in the work environment remains largely below men’s level. Hence, adequate representation of the woman in a working environment only makes it just and also ensures the possibility of a more productive business. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 11 2.1.4. Corporate Reputation “Corporate reputation can be viewed as social constructions created from the multiplicity of evaluations rendered by specialized evaluators, public observers and media amplifiers” (Rindova and Fombrun, 1999). It is ‘a perceptual representation of a company’s past actions and future prospects that describe the firm’s overall appeal to all its key constituents when compared to other leading rivals’ (Fombrun, 1996, p. 72). Investors usually assume that good investment opportunities originate from ‘respectable’ companies, that is from companies with a high reputational rating (Shefrin and Statman, 1995; Shefrin, 2001). In the contemporary world, the qualifications of a reputable company involve its participation of females in their administrative measures. This goes a long way to boost its investor package. 2.2. Theoretical Framework 2.2.1. The Resource-Based Theory of Competitive Advantage This theory denotes that, the constant success of a business venture is based on the corporates internal resources which includes its employees, funds, volunteers etc. The firm’s competence falls on taking advantage of those resources to develop a modest gain over rival options and also this innovation can back the good financial performance of the firm in its market space (Grant RM, 1991). Thus, by making good use of human resources, that is, giving females equal representation MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 12 in corporate firms, gender diversity is ensured. This in the long run aids innovation in corporate firms, thus boosting their reputation. Females possess the ability to inspire the growth and development of their work peers or subordinates and also provide positive feedback on a regular basis, which often helps boost employee morale and engagement. According to Tonya McNeal-Weary in a tweet, women are known to have different leadership styles as compared to men. This is usually based on the fact that women tend to be more compassionate, nurturing and patient than their male counterparts. 2.2.2 Feminization Theory Feminization refers to an alteration in gender and sex roles in the various organizations, the several societies, in a group in the direction of the feminine (Sabrina and Ramet, 1996). Feminist theorizing is directed at the creation of knowledge committed to changing women’s lives. The point being to change the world, not only to study it’ (Stanley, 1990: 15). The extensive body of literature on women in the workplace comes from this perspective, focusing on ways in which women can ‘break through the glass ceiling’ (Brewis and Linstead, 2004). It is as if organizations and societies are only ‘accidentally gendered’ (Halford et al. 1997: 7), that gender neutrality will be regained by the removal of discriminatory individuals, policies and practices, and that women’s emancipation will be achieved by a greater inclusion of women into ‘malestream’ organizations and organizational theories. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 13 Feminism asks unique questions as a way of “seeing through what is already crazy about the world, notably the cruelty and injustice” (Rose, 2014:) of everyday lives. It is time to return to what feminism has to tell us. It is time to make the case for what women have uniquely to say about the perils of the modern world (Jacqueline Rose, 2014). In spite of this, organizational structures and feminization theory have been separated due to opposing interests as organizational structures are built to be male dominated. The increased consciousness to the "gender blind" nature of organizational theories, eventually led to the gendered analysis of organizational structures. Because traditional approaches to the organizations do not take into account gender differences, considerable errors have been made in interpreting how organizations operate (Mills, Peta Tancred, 1992). Various feminist movements have helped to raise awareness on gender issues, it has also helped towards connecting the gender inequality gap across organizational, social, political and other spheres of life around the world as feminists seek to fight for the female voice to be given a chance to be heard. 2.2.3 Tokenism Theory Tokenism is an “artificial appearance” achieved by including a limited number of individuals in the minority group in effective positions within the existing group due to their characteristics (gender, race, religion, age, etc.). It is accepted as disadvantage or groups’ characteristics different from the dominant group (Kante, 1997). There is no problem as long as women continue to work with low-paid salaries in their occupations (assistantships, secretarial, care services, etc.) deemed appropriate for them, however, in the event that they take part in the occupations dominated by https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0018726718765625 MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 14 men, they receive the status of token (Floge, Merrill: 1986; Greed,2000; Hammond, Mahoney:1983). The concept of “tokenism” has been used widely to explain many of the complications women encounter as they enter male dominant occupations. Tokenism explains women's occupational experiences and their behavioral responses to those experiences in terms of their numerical proportion, suggesting that barriers to women’s full occupational equality can be lowered by the hiring of more women in organizations that are highly-skewed male. This paper suggests that the tokenism hypothesis has not been subjected to rigorous testing and that the research that does exist should lead us to question the adequacy of the concept. This paper concludes that a gender-neutral theory such as tokenism is of limited value in explaining the experiences of either men or women in a society where gender remains important. Further, the focus on tokenism may hinder women's progress to the extent that it turns our attention away from an analysis of the effects of sexism in the workplace and the society as a whole. This concept when applied at workplace may also bring about some performance pressure on the token as much will be expected from him or her. Disappointment may occur when pressure and anxiety override performance (Spangler et al. 1978: 161). This may go a long way to affect the corporate’s reputation. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 15 2.3. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 2.3.1. Female Representation and Corporate Reputation Gender diversity in top management can contribute undeniably to a company’s reputation because of the discernment that female executives bring outstanding and valuable resources that boost board’s decisions and performance. Female in top management can encourage the idea of external agents that a board will function more successfully on the basis that, the presence of female managers will advance board progressions or that female managers bring on board salient skills, knowledge and abilities. The presence of a female manager may help the organization to manage its relationships with key investors and stakeholders’ groups such as employees and customers (Burke, 1997; Carver, 2002; Daily, Certo and Dalton, 1999; Singh and Vinnicombe, 2004). If an assortment of essential skills is not scattered across demographic groups, a biased corporation would relinquish its access to some range of possible resources in case they are to exclude certain groups from key decision-making roles (Westphal and Milton, 2000). This denotes that there would be a relevant financial profit to corporations who choose their executives from the vast pool of accessible talent rather than discriminating against a specific demographic group when selecting appropriate contenders (Burke, 1997; Carver, 2002; Cassell, 2000). This may have a direct linkage to improving the corporates performance as well. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 16 2.3.2. Female Representation in the Workforce and its Effects The role of the board in determining the corporate strategy influences firm performance since diversity is often considered a double-edged sword (Milliken F J and Martins L., 1996). Increasing female representation can result in advantages and disadvantages regarding desired outcomes. A board composed of diverse directors affects firm performance either positively or negatively. The positive and negative effects of more female representation could also counteract each other, or could depend on how it is managed (van Knippenberg ,2004). Along these lines, a conducted meta-analysis by Webber and Donahue (2001) studied the effects of diversity on work group performance in a sample of 45 different sizes. Low job-related (age, gender) and highly job-related diversity (educational background) were measured, but both failed to show a significant relationship with work group performance. Further, primary studies also do not show a distinct agreement on whether gender diversity benefits or disadvantages firm performance (Jackson S E, Joshi A, Erhardt N L,2003), Miller T, Triana M del C (2009). At first glance, the relationship between female representation on corporate boards and firm financial performance shows a similar pattern to that of the general diversity-performance relationship, being either positive (Mahadeo JD, Soobaroyen T, Hanuman VO 2011), negative (Pathan S, Faff R, 2013), or non-significant (Strøm R Ø, D’Espallier B, Mersland R, 2014) . Advocates of greater female representation on corporate boards usually rely on two lines of arguments: the ethical or the business case for diversity (Robinson G, Dechant K, 1997). The former argues that women should be considered for leadership positions for equality reasons. The aim is therefore not directly to increase performance, but rather that greater female representation is considered a positive and just result in itself (Brammer S, Millington A, Pavelin S, 2007). Thus, MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 17 a higher proportion of females on boards might not necessarily be related to better firm performance, but would reflect that boards with more females closely represent the ‘real world’, while other factors than gender alone contribute to better financial outcomes. The business case for diversity holds that if a board comprises heterogeneous directors, diversity leverages financial growth and success (Robinson & Dechant, 1997), indicating that a higher proportion of females could be related to better firm performance. 2.3.3. Positive Effects of Increased Female Representation and Firm Performance The business case for diversity holds that diverse team members improve corporate governance by introducing broader knowledge bases and experiences (Robinson & Dechant, 1997), (Fondas & Sassalos, 2000). Accordingly, the cognitive resource model suggests that as gender diversity in groups increases, the available cognitive resources increase as well (Jackson, May & Whitney, 1995; McLeod, Lobel & Cox, 1996). If used effectively, these diverse perspectives can contribute to a more thorough search for alternative solutions to problems because they introduce new perspectives to the boardroom (Watson, Kumar & Michaelsen, 1993). These diverse perspectives also foster a critical analysis of complex problems, prevent premature decision-making (Milliken & Martins, 1996); van Knippenberg ,2004; Carter, Souza, Simkins & Simpson, 2010; Farrell & Hersch, 2005), and develop creative and innovative solutions (Bassett-Jones, 2005). Therefore, increased female representation on corporate boards could enhance firm financial status through the diverse perspectives introduced to the boardroom. Another essential argument in support of the business case for diversity is that women bring essential female leadership qualities and prowess to the boardroom. These include, for example, MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 18 risk averseness and less radical decision-making (Croson & Gneezy, 2009; Jianakoplos & Bernasek, 1998), as well as more sustainable investment strategies (Charness & Gneezy, 2012). In addition, female leaders fulfill their leadership roles in a more transformational ways than their male counterparts, distinguishing themselves especially through their encouraging and supportive treatment of colleagues and subordinates (i.e., individualized consideration) (Eagly, 2003). Females are also said to value their responsibilities as directors higher, which is associated with more effective corporate governance (Terjesen, Sealy & Singh 2009). Furthermore, diversity on corporate boards generally benefits organizations, by providing wider and better connections and ties to suppliers, organizations, and consumers, which decrease market uncertainties and dependencies (Miller, Triana & del C,2009). In spite of this, an increased female presence on corporate boards is linked to the introduction of new desirable leadership skills and a pool of strategic advantages for corporations. Based on this logic, this study expects a positive relationship between increased female representation and firm financial performance. 2.3.4. Negative Effects of Increased Female Representation and Firm Performance Individuals are likely to perceive others and themselves in terms of salient social categories, such as gender, thereby creating in- and out-groups (Tajfel, 1978). These categorization tendencies, which might lead to heightened gender salience and a perceived lack of alignment with the group’s stereotypes (Abrams, Thomas, & Hogg, 2011) can compromise functional team processes when demographic subgroups emerge. If the emerging subgroups in top management are based on gender, communication and cooperation, they might be impaired (van Knippenberg, 2003), leading MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 19 to increased conflicts between board members. The probability of conflict might be further enhanced if the directors identify stronger with the opinions of fellow directors of the same gender (Richard, Barnett, Dwyer & Chadwick, 2004), or if the introduction of new perspectives, previously mentioned as one of diverse groups’ advantages, backfires (Jehn, Northcraft & Neale, 1999). In turn, this potential for interpersonal conflicts might retard the decision-making process and lead to a lack of cohesion between board members and to decrease strategic consensus (Amason,1996), (Knight, Pearce, Smith, Olian, Sims & Smith et al. 1999), hindering corporate boards’ effectiveness. In fast-paced environments, such as on corporate boards where strategic decisions need to be taken quickly, conflict-free communication is crucial to maintain effective performance (Williams & O’Reilly, 1998). And even if these issues can be overcome, the additional time and resources spent on solving them might decrease group and organizational performance (Kyereboah-Coleman A, 2006). These far-reaching potentials for impaired team processes might especially challenge females, who struggle to participate and maintain their standing in the already male-dominated boardroom (Tuggle, Sirmon & Bierman, 2011) and are at risk of experiencing role ambiguity and role conflict, because they do not conform to typical gender roles in leadership (Koenig,2011). Such females might be perceived as “tokens” to meet society’s expectations or those of important stakeholders, and could therefore be marginalized and not be taken seriously on the board (Kanter, 1977), which might subsequently hinder their and the entire board’s performance (Jackson & Schuler, 1985), (Tubre & Collins, 2000). In conclusion, it is rather difficult to ascertain the connection between female representation on boards and firm performance. Summary of all studies measuring the connection between female representation on corporate boards and firm financial performance could provide solid evidence MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 20 to address the question whether increased female representation on corporate boards alone is positively or negatively related to firm financial performance in extension corporate reputation. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 21 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLODY 3.0. Introduction This chapter discusses the methods for this research used by the researcher in the collection and analysis of the data for the study. The methodology was chosen to ensure the research objectives are achieved and to address any data gathering problems that might be imminent in this research. The central parts of this chapter include the research design, population of the study, sample and its sampling techniques, the instruments, data collection processes and procedures and data analysis technique. 3.1. Research Design Kotohari (2005) argues that Research design is simply a systematic plan to study a scientific problem. The Research Design intended to be is the Qualitative Research Design, specifically the use of Case Study. According to Burns and Grove (2003), the qualitative approach is “a systematic subjective approach used to describe life experiences and situations to give them meaning” (p. 19). Parahoo (1997) also indicates that qualitative research generally focuses on the experiences of people as well as stressing uniqueness of the individual. However, a Qualitative Research Design requires interaction with respondents to be able to achieve a result. This will be a problem due to the widespread Covid-19. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 22 3.2 Data Collection The data collection technique that would have been employed is that of the In-depth interview. Seale, Giampietro, Gabrium and Silverman (2004) argue that an Interview is a social encounter where speakers collaborate in producing retrospective and prospective accounts or versions of their past or future actions, experiences, feelings and thoughts. As stated, In-depth interview appears appropriate when it comes to collecting data on an individual’s perspectives, opinions, experiences and situations he/she has lived through especially when the topic been explored is one that relies on one’s perceived notion of it. The semi-structured interview guide would have been used for the gathering of data. The semi- structured interview appears partly structured and partly unstructured. What this implies is that, though there would have been an interview guide, taking into cognizance the research questions that this research work seeks to answer, the researcher would sometimes engaged the interviewees on some issues that came up in their responses which may appear to correlate with the topic in question. The semi-structured interview would have been conducted with principal leaders in case study organizations to understand the details of female representation in corporate societies and its effects on corporate reputation. The responses would have been recorded with their permission using a recorder for later transcription. The questions would have mostly been open ended to enable the researcher probe further as has already been stated. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 23 3.3. Population/ Sample/ Sample Technique According to Huysamen (1994), a population is defined as “the total collection of all members, cases or elements about which the researcher wishes to draw conclusions.” Burns and Grove (2003) have also defined eligibility criteria for the population to mean “a list of characteristics that are required for the membership in the target population”. The Population of the study is originally Female workers occupying great status in case study organizations since they are in the corporate domain already and can bring to bare their impact on the reputation of the organization. However, the population was other existing researches instead since the researcher had to maintain social distancing. 3.4. Sampling Procedure and Sampling Size Sampling refers to the technique or process of choosing a sub-group or sub-category from a population for them to participate in a particular research. Polit et al. (2001) define sample as “a proportion of a population”. Ogula (2005) also argues that sampling is a process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals selected represent the large group from which they were subsequently selected. The sample would have been chosen from case study organizations with females in top management contributing in the decisions of the organization. The Purposive or Judgmental sampling procedure which is a non-probability sampling method was meant to be used to select the respondents. Parahoo (1997) states that, in non-probability sampling, researchers use their judgment to select the subjects to be included in the study based on their knowledge of the phenomenon. According to Parahoo (1997) purposive sampling is a MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 24 “method of sampling where the researcher deliberately chooses who to include in the study based on their ability to provide necessary data” (p. 232). According to Mastalgia, Toye and Kristjanson (2003), an advantage of using purposive sampling for interviews is that, individuals who have experienced the phenomenon of interest are invited to participate and contribute to a wide range of domain descriptors and construct dimensions. Hence, purposive sampling would have been done on case study organizations and interviews would have been used to draw out data. A Sample of 6, 2 each from three case study organizations would have served as the sample size. 3.5 Data Collection Instruments The intended research instrument that was to be employed by the researcher was a well-researched and drafted interview guide. The interview guide would have provided the basis that regulated how and what kind of questions would have been posed to the respondents. A recording instrument, that is the use of a Phone’s record function would have been used to record the respondents for subsequent transcription. Also, the use of a note pad may have been used also to jot down certain key explanations that are significant. 3.6 Data Collection Procedure In research work, acquiring data occupies the core of it, as without it, there wouldn’t be any findings that will serve as the basis for discussions or right analysis. The researcher would have recorded all interviews with the respondents and later transcribed everything onto a piece of paper. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 25 In addition, the researcher would have written down some of the responses that didn’t satisfy the question enough in order to probe further. The researcher intended to conduct all interviews at the office premises of the respondents. On average, each interview might have ran to almost 20 minutes per interviewee. 3.7 Data Analysis Procedure Data gathered from the interview conducted would have been analyzed in descriptive and interpretive manner because of the qualitative approach that would have underpinned this study. The interview data would have been subsequently analysed by using various thematic areas based on the responses that might have come from the respondents in relation to the objectives of this research work. By thematic analysis, it implies a qualitative analytic method for identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns (themes) within the data. It actually organizes the data in a comprehensive manner that touches on all the salient points. The data would have therefore been analysed through the use of certain pattern of responses that would have been given by the respondents and subsequently provide an interpretive analysis. 3.8. Ethical Consideration The respondents would not have been intimidated. They would have been allowed to express themselves freely to provide their own best personal opinions and answers covering the situation under study. However, independency, confidentiality, protection of personal identity and security of respondents would have been strongly assured. The researcher would have also debriefed the MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 26 respondents to know where their responses would end up and the confidentiality with which they would have been guided by in the research work. 3.9. Limitations The limitations of this study came from the fact that, because of the COVID19, there was no time for people to attend to other extracurricular activities apart from their main work and other family demands. The researcher did not conduct interviews as expected. This is as a result of maintaining social distancing and also not burdening people with matters of school work. Another reason for not conducting interviews was due to the fact that the Ghana Institute of Journalism’s Research Department requested students to not collect data in these trying times. Another major hindrance was insufficient Ghanaian setting literature to serve as guide for the drafting of research questions. Also, the researcher was unable to go by approved timeline as it was difficult for the researcher to go by all approved mechanisms for the research because of unforeseen circumstances. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 27 CHAPTER FOUR CONCLUSION 4.1. Introduction This chapter presents a summary of the study and the various research knowledge this study contributes towards existing knowledge and makes new revelations. 4.2 Contribution to Literature This study sought to show how female representation in the corporate society (by critically assessing how females rising into various top management positions) contributed towards the overall reputation of the organization. It is worthy to mention that, it is a normal case for men to always be found in top management of corporate organizations. In this regard, it was essential to determine if females occupying such high positions and contributing towards the organization’s decision making. In this regard, this research evidently shows the various tactics that females bring on board in top management positions which then helps to raise the reputation of the organization. The cultural makeup of the female within Ghanaian societies shows their huge emotional intelligence in dealing with critical matters and as such, having them in top management can do a lot more for the corporate reputation of the organization in question. This study also reveals that, assuming more women are involved in top management, how different would the operations be and consequently the effects it will have on the corporate reputation of the organization. MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 28 4.3 Recommendation This study has shown that more research on female representation in corporate societies in Ghana is necessary to understanding the menace that females face in their attempt to positively impact the organization and what informs their decision making. Discoveries from the work of several scholars prove that there is a need to further understand the female representation, explore the patterns if any as well as encourage all involved firms to be aware of the implications it produces. There should be an outstanding governmental body to check and report all forms gender bias existing in Ghana. This would allow for more comprehensive statistics on the occurrence and help better incorporate females in top management activities as evidently shown that, when women are involved in organization’s top management decisions, it would help boost the organization’s fortunes. Further studies using other research methodology should also be employed in future studies as this will help provide other understanding of how females participate in corporate Ghana and specifically top management and the various issues that they face. Such thorough research helps in providing data that will go a long way to contributing towards the protection of underprivileged gender like females and proffer means through which they can better rise and contribute to corporate reputation and other subjects like corporate value etc. 4.4 Conclusion The nature of this study is one that is commendable as bridges the gap that exists within the Ghanaian society where there is no literature to show the impact of female participation in top MAPR19083 Female Representation in Corporate Societies 29 management on the corporate reputation of the organization. Ordinarily, the discussion has been that, there is the need for female representation, but it is barely linked to concrete results that will be achieved through that. Hence, such original and innovative research is critical when it comes to the provision of innovative ideas backed by data and science. 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