ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF ASSESSING GRADUATE STUDENTS IN 

GHANA INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM (GIJ) 

 

VICTORIA AMOA-BOSOMPEM 

(MADC19057) 

 

A LONG ESSAY SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE 

STUDIES AND RESEARCH (SoGSaR), IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF 

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS (M.A) 

IN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION 

 

SUPERVISOR: DR KOFI AMPONSAH-BEDIAKO 

 

AUGUST, 2020



 

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STUDENTS DECLARATION 

I do hereby declare that this long essay is the result of my original research, and that it has not 

been partially or wholly presented by anybody for the award of any degree in this institution or 

elsewhere. All references used in the work have been duly acknowledged. 

 

……………………………………………………………                                                                ….………………………… 

VICTORIA AMOA-BOSOMPEM                                                     DATE 

(STUDENT) 

 

 

 

……………………………………………………………                                                                ….………………………… 

DR KOFI AMPONSAH-BEDIAKO                                                  DATE                                                                                                                                 

(SUPERVISOR) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

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DEDICATION 

I dedicate this thesis to God almighty for his everlasting love, grace and mercies. I also dedicate it 

to my late father Mr. Kwaku Amoa-Bosompem, my mum Mrs. Mary Oforiwaa Bosompem and 

my siblings who supported in diverse ways to help me finish this program successfully.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT  

I want to thank the Almighty God for seeing me through a successful completion of this long essay. 

I sincerely want to thank my family and the Agyemang-Baah family for their continual support, 

love, and encouragement. I also want to show my appreciation to my former lecturer Mr. Isaac 

Adjei-Forson (Department of Modern Languages, KNUST), for his support and encouragement 

throughout this long essay writing. Most importantly, my profound appreciation goes to my 

supervisor Dr. Kofi Amponsah Bediako for his time and support during the entire period of writing 

this long essay.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

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TABLE OF CONTENT  

 
STUDENTS DECLARATION ........................................................................................................ i 

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iii 

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... vi 

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1 

1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1 

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ..................................................................................... 1 

1.2 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE STUDY .................................................................................. 3 

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY .......................................................................................... 4 

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................................... 5 

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................... 5 

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY. .................................................................................. 6 

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 7 

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 7 

2.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 7 

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS .................................................................................................... 7 

2.1 ASSESSMENT ..................................................................................................................... 7 

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...................................................................................... 11 

2.3 SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT AND THE NEW PARADIGM (FORMATIVE) ............ 13 

     2.4.0 Feedback (Key Characteristics of Alternative Assessment) ............................................ 18 

2.4.1 Formative Assessment (Alternative): Different Forms ................................................ 20 

2.4.2 Diagnostic Assessment ................................................................................................. 21 

2.4.3 Portfolios ...................................................................................................................... 21 

2.4.4 Self-Assessment............................................................................................................ 23 

2.4.5 Peer-Assessment ........................................................................................................... 23 

2.4.6 Performance-Based Assessments ................................................................................. 24 

2.4.7 Interview-Based Assessment ........................................................................................ 24 

2.4.8 Play-Based Assessment ................................................................................................ 25 

2.4.9 Co-operative Group Assessment .................................................................................. 25 



 

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2.4.10 Dialogue Journals and Scaffolded Essays .................................................................. 26 

    2.4.11. Scoring in Formative Assessment ................................................................................. 27 

2.5 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................ 27 

CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 29 

METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 29 

3.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 29 

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................................................................ 29 

         3.1.1 Qualitative Approach.................................................................................................... 30 

3.2 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION ............................................................................. 31 

3.2.1 Semi-Structured Interview ............................................................................................ 32 

3.2.2 The Interview Guide ..................................................................................................... 33 

3.3 THE SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS ........................................................................... 35 

3.4 METHOD OF DATA-ANALYSIS .................................................................................... 36 

CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 38 

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 38 

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 41 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

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ABSTARCT 

Graduate education is to prepare students for academic, government (public) or private sector 

careers in their chosen field or for further study. Assessment is therefore seen as an important tool 

for active learning in Class. It includes the exploration of practices around assessment and grading 

which are reasonable, fair, and focused on acquiring practical knowledge rather than competition 

among students. It further argued that the low assessment literacy of lecturers has been the result 

of the fact that most school curricula fail to explicitly list the basic competencies (national 

minimum standards) that guarantee academic success. In Ghana, assessment and its practices 

among teachers has been well researched and documented. Unfortunately, the application of 

alternative assessment techniques among Graduate students during facilitation has not been well 

researched. This study, therefore, investigates the alternative methods of assessing Graduate 

Students with a special focus on Ghana Institute of Journalism using a qualitative research method 

(in-depth interviews) to find out from some purposefully selected participants, comprising of 

Graduate Students, Lecturers and some administration staff on the implication the traditional way 

of assessment has on pedagogy and policies relative to assessment. The study came out with a 

conclusion that assessment in higher education is an important task that needs to be strategized 

and applied efficiently for effective learning. In order to have an effective assessment, the current 

assessment techniques need to be reviewed or amended so that practical aspects and real-life 

applications of course contents could be given more significance. For effective assessment, 

Universities must involve practical approaches/exposure or hands-on approaches in the 

curriculum, develop entrepreneurial abilities among students, discourage spoon-feeding practices 

to the students and not be restricted to only sit-down exams and focus more on experiential or field 

learning rather than on the theoretic knowledge. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

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CHAPTER ONE 

1.0 INTRODUCTION 

This chapter covers the background of the study, justification for the study, objectives of the study, 

research questions, significance of the study and organization of the study. 

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 

The major goal of graduate education is to prepare students for academic, government or private 

sector careers in their chosen field or for further study. Identifying and addressing students’ needs 

and expectations allows institutions to attract and retain quality students as well as to improve the 

quality of their programs (Elliot and Shinn, 2002). 

Also, student’s outcomes, including productivity while enrolled in a graduate program, can be a 

key measure of the quality and effectiveness of the degree program (Hatcher et al., 1992; Redd, 

1998).  

According to Dr. Rawlusyk (2018), scholars state that examination has become the focus of 

assessment, which adversely affects learning. Effective assessment for learning promotes the 

active engagement of students, also teachers have conflicting views relative to students use of 

feedback and the use of dialogue.  

These show that there is limited involvement of learners in assessment strategy which can impact 

learning. It is recommended that lecturers(teachers) make use of professional development to 

comprehend how to optimize the active participation of their students in various authentic 

assessment methods and feedback. 



 

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Educators and educational leaders have continually debated student assessment in higher education 

(Boud & Falchikov, 2007, Careless, 2015: Gilles, Detroz & Blais, 2011). 

Academics expressed concern that methods used to assess students are not linked to students 

learning (Carless, 2014; Douglas Wilson & Ennis, 2012; Trevalyan & Wilson, 2012; Webber, 

2012).  

Furthermore, ongoing discussions center on such topics as whether a student’s success in 

examinations relates to high standards, what assessment tasks are best for learning, whether 

assessment practices promote lifelong learning, and how feedback could help improve student 

progress. (Carless, 2015). 

Scholars, however identified that teachers do not always link assessment with quality teaching 

(Postareff, Virtanen, Katatjavuori, & Lindblom-Ylanne, 2012). Instead, they view assessment as a 

practice that signifies evaluation and formation of grades (Sambell, McDowell, & Montgomery, 

2013; Torrance, 2012). 

Again, scholars suggest that assessment can be an important tool for active learning in the 

Classroom (Bonwell, 2010; McGinnis, 2018).  

Again, UNICEF also describes quality in education to encompass a broader definition involving 

learners’ readiness, learning environments, curriculum content, curriculum processes and 

curriculum outcomes. 

Most lecturers are with the view that sit-down examinations are the only and best methods by 

which Graduate Students can be assessed and students who do not make the pass mark are 

classified as failures or the non-performing ones thereby not being able to complete their program 

of study. 



 

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However, student satisfaction has also been found to be one of the factors that affect the quality 

and overall effectiveness of a program (Aiken, 1982; Astin et al., 1987; Bailey et al., 1998) 

It is with this context that the research seeks to systematically examine alternative methods of 

assessing Graduate Students in order to suggest or formulate different ways Graduate students can 

be assessed and not only be restricted to the everyday sit-down exams. 

1.2 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE STUDY 

The concept of development has overtime become the prime quest of the modern-day Ghanaian. 

Also, student satisfaction has also been found to be one of the factors which affect the quality and 

overall effectiveness of a program (Aiken, 1982; Astin et al., 1987; Bailey et al., 1998) 

Assessment of graduate students is a complex and tough responsibility. This statement has been 

supported by the number of facts like discipline-specific assessment, program-level assessment, 

maintaining standards among integrated programs and assessing students in programs which allow 

diverse choices (Clair Hughes, 2010). 

Conversely, Knight (2007) stated that assessment is the best way to judge the student in terms of 

their time utilization and how they witness themselves as students and as graduates. He further 

added that through their assessment attributes, employers evaluate and see their potential. It is due 

to the assessment that the government become evident of the number of graduates and linked them 

with the literacy rate. 

Research by Craddock (2009) showed that the nature of assessment has a direct influence on the 

student’s learning process and their perception about the whole process. Students generally think 

that they could not be able to express their knowledge within a given time constraint. Results 

indicate that students need to react quickly in giving the answers against questions due to time 



 

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constraints. Students complained that they never feel doing justice with their acquired knowledge 

while sitting in an exam hall and therefore feel disappointed and stressed (Craddock, 2009). 

It is always difficult to predict the future of the student at the time of graduating, as they are being 

prepared for an indecisive and unknowable future. University programs get critique from students 

as they are insufficient and unable to fulfill their professional needs and demands. 

Also, it is associated with the assessment policies of universities as they are deemed irrelevant to 

their professional lives. However, assessment is still important to improve the quality of the 

learning process (Maxwell, 2012).  

 In Ghana, the assessment and its practices among teachers have been well researched and 

documented (Amoako, 2018; Bordoh et al, 2013; Akyeampong, 1997). However, research in this 

area focused attention on assessment practices among senior high school teachers and its impact 

on students learning (Sofo, Ocansey, Nabie & Asola, 2013), among Colleges of Education tutors 

and the strategies they use (Akyeampong, 1997; Bekoe, Eshun & Bordoh, 2013; Eshun, Bordoh, 

Bassaw & Mensah, 2014) as well as among elementary school teachers in the country (Asare, 

2015). Unfortunately, the application of alternative assessment techniques among graduate 

students during facilitation has not been well researched. This study, therefore, seeks to investigate 

the alternative methods to assess graduate students at the Ghana Institute of Journalism. 

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 

The primary objective of the study is to identify an alternative method of assessing Graduate 

Students. 

The specific objectives of this study seek to achieve the following: 



 

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1. To highlight the key assessment techniques employed by Lecturers of Ghana Institute of 

Journalism. 

2. To investigate the views of lecturers on assessment methods used for Graduate Students at 

GIJ.  

3. To examine the views of Graduate Students on assessment methods employed by lecturers 

of GIJ. 

4. To examine the benefits and challenges of assessment methods used at GIJ for Graduate 

Students. 

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 

1. What are the key assessment techniques employed by Lecturers of Ghana Institute of 

Journalism? 

2. What are the views of lecturers on assessment methods used for Graduate Students at GIJ? 

3. What are the views of Graduate Students on the assessment methods employed by lecturers 

of GIJ? 

4. What are the benefits and challenges of assessment methods used at GIJ for Graduate 

Students? 

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 

The primitive purpose of the study is to look out for the alternative ways Graduate Students of GIJ 

can be assessed and would not be restricted to a sit-down examination only. 

Again, the study is seeking to establish an alternative method of assessing graduate students. The 

findings from the study will provide some useful data and suggestions for future research into other 

various means of assessing Graduate Students. This study will also help expand the body of 



 

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knowledge in an area; The importance of fieldwork and Effective ways of assessing Graduate 

Students.  

The study will not only benefit Graduate students of GIJ but all Graduate Institutions in the country 

in terms of other alternative ways of assessing Graduate Student. 

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY. 

The study has been organized into four main chapters with each chapter linking to the other to 

produce a complete work. The first chapter covers the introduction that sets out the main focus and 

purpose of the study. It outlines the background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of 

the study, objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study, and organization 

of the work. Chapter two will also deal with review of related literature that supports the study and 

theoretical framework according to the following underlying theme: alternative method of 

assessment. This theme is considered to be important on the topic of research. The review of the 

literature would provide additional justification for the purpose and direction of this study.  Chapter 

three focus on methodology, where the researcher will present and discuss the research design and 

the approach that will be adopted for the study, the study population, sample and sampling 

technique, data gathering tools, pilot study, access, ethical consideration, procedure for data 

collection and analysis. The fourth chapter will reflect on how the study contributes to knowledge 

and provide the summary of the research, conclusion, and recommendation and suggestion for 

future research. 

 

 

 



 

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CHAPTER TWO 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.0 Introduction  

Hammond and Wellington (2013) state that reviewing the literature entails researchers to establish 

an overview of what has already been studied in the field or area under intention of the 

investigation. By highlighting these arguments, this research shows what has been studied in the 

field, definitions of terms, theoretical framework that can be used to explain the study and also 

where the weaknesses, gaps, or areas which need further studies are. This review validates why 

this research is very useful and necessary.  

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS 

2.1 Assessment 

Assessment has been defined in many ways by different scholars. Among the many, 

Linn and Miller (2005), defined assessment of student learning as a systematic process of 

collecting information about student progress towards the learning goals. 

Huba & Freed (2000), assessment is a systematic way of putting together, interpreting, and acting 

upon data related to student learning and experience for the purpose of developing a deep 

understanding of what students know, understand, and can do with their knowledge acquired as a 

result of their educational experience; the process culminates when assessment results are used to 

improve subsequent learning processes. 

Dhindsa et al. (2007) have also characterized assessment as a key component of teaching and 

learning. 



 

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According to Dhindsa et al. (2007) assessment is “a systematic process of data gathering” about 

students’ progress (p. 1261). 

However, Linn and Miller (2005) maintain that students’ performance can be measured in various 

ways, including “traditional paper and pencil tests, extended responses (essays), the performance 

of an authentic task, teacher observation, and student self-report” (p. 26).  

Additionally, the authors distinguish between two other terms aligned with assessment i.e.: 

1. Test “an instrument for measuring a sample of behavior” and  

2. Measurement, “the process of obtaining a numerical description of the degree to which an 

individual possesses a particular characteristic” (Linn & Miller, 2005, p. 26).  

According to Herrera, Murry and Cabral (2007), students are now being asked to use their 

“cognitive development, academic knowledge, and language skills to read, comprehend, 

synthesize, analyze, compare, contrast, relate, articulate, write, evaluate and more” (p. 23).          

This encouragement builds the foundation for alternative forms (formative) of assessment to be 

used in the classrooms so that the instructors can “measure incremental gains” (Herrera, Murry & 

Cabral 2007, p. 22).  

Although various definitions are given about alternative assessment in the literature, Crawford and 

Impara (2001), Cooper (1999), Diaz-Rico and Weed (2006), Linn and Miller (2005) and Hancock 

(1994) maintain that alternative assessments: Are generally developed directly from classroom 

instruction, group work, and related classroom activities and provide an alternative to traditional 

assessment, can be considered valid and reliable in that they genuinely and consistently assess a 

student’s classroom performance, facilitate the student’s participation in the evaluation process, 

including measurements and evaluations relevant to both the teacher and the student, emphasize 



 

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real-world problems, tasks, or applications that are relevant to the student and his/her community 

(cited in Herrera, Murry & Cabral, 2007, p. 23). 

However, Wiliam and Thompson (2008) introduce a shift from traditional assessment forms to a 

newer paradigm, alternative assessment. According to them, the emergence of formative and 

summative assessment as two different formats principally has attracted educators’ attention in the 

current literature (Wiliam & Thompson, 2008). These authors argue that the use of assessment for 

student learning is the main feature of formative assessment.  

Wiliam and Thompson (2008), Scriven (1967) and Bloom (1969) proposed the terminology 

 “formative” and “summative” assessment, given the reason to differentiate the role of assessment. 

Formative assessment is introduced as an on-going process of assessing students’ learning, 

providing feedback to adjust instruction and learning, improving the curriculum (2008). 

Summative assessment, on the other hand, is bound to administrative decisions and assigning 

grades to the tests. 

Bloom (1969) asserts that when an assessment is aligned with the process of teaching and learning, 

it will have "a positive effect on students’ learning and their motivation" (cited in Wiliam, 2008, 

p. 58). 

Assessment in general accounts for "supporting learning (formative), certifying the achievement 

or potential of individuals (summative), and evaluating the quality of educational institutions or 

programs (evaluative)" (Wiliam, 2008, p. 59). 

Black and Wiliam (2004) put more emphasis on the use of assessment to support learning; 

however, they also acknowledge the importance of using assessment for certification and 

evaluation. 



 

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In addition, there is a rising consensus among educators that assessment should be used to diagnose 

students’ achievement, measure their performance, sort students, etc, however, others argue for 

the use of assessment to enhance student learning and performance (Delandshere, 2002). 

Birenbaum (1996) makes a distinction between testing and assessment, in which testing measures 

achievements, mainly cognitive skills such as memorizing factual information and is considered 

separate from instruction. 

However, the new paradigm of assessment offers an alternative form of testing culture which is 

“characterized by a so-called objective, such as standardized tests that focused on atomized bits of 

knowledge at the expense of more complex, higher-order knowledge and skills”, assessment an 

integrated part of instruction (Gulikers, Bastiaens, Kirshner & Kester, 2006, p. 382; Dochy, 1997). 

Although interpretations of formative assessment vary widely, according to Wiliam and Thompson 

(2008), "formative assessment is used to provide information on the likely performance of 

students" and "to describe and feedback given to students...telling them which items they got 

correct" (p. 60). This opposes the way selected responses measure students’ achievement, given 

students’ scores instead of feedback. 

Formative assessment, according to Wiggins and McTighe (2007), occurs during instruction, as 

part of instruction rather than a separate activity. It has both formal and informal formats including 

ungraded quizzes, oral questioning, self-reflection, peer feedback, think-aloud, etc. 

However, a distinction is made between assessments for learning which describes the process, 

assessment as a support for learning, compared to the assessment of learning that describes the 

nature of assessment or the product (Wiliam & Black 1998; Wiliam & Thompson, 2008). 



 

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In a similar measure, other researchers agree that the core features that characterize formative 

assessment are that; it impacts the quality of teaching and learning, and it engages students in a 

self-directed learning environment (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2004). 

The literature on assessment and teaching has expounded on the importance of formative 

assessment and its implications for instruction. Therefore, its ultimate goal is that "assessment… 

feed into actions in the classroom in order to affect learning" (Wiliam & Thompson, p. 63). 

In the same vein, Wiggins and McTighe (2007) argued that by embedding formative assessment 

in “curriculum documents, and advice on how to use their results to adjust curriculum, a    

school…signals that such practices support effective teaching” (p. 103). 

Along with this theory, the term “big idea” is introduced as a key component of formative 

assessment, which goes along with the strategies that describes the role of instructor, learner, and 

peer (Wiliam & Thompson, 2008; Black & Wiliam, 1998; Herrera, Murry & Cabral, 2007).  

Although a variety of definitions are presented for the term big idea, among them, some scholars 

see it in terms of its implications on assessment. 

Big idea is"evidence about student learning used to adjust instruction to better meet student needs", 

in other words "that teaching is adaptive to the student's learning needs" (Wiliam 2008, p. 64). 

Moreover, Black and Wiliam (1998) raise the “scrutiny issue" of developing tests to collect 

relevant evidence of student progress: “good questions are hard to generate and teachers should 

collaborate, and draw—critically—on outside sources, to collect such questions” (p. 8).  

2.2 Theoretical Framework 

Framework Relating Strategies of Formative Assessment to Instructional Processes 

 Where the learner 

is going 

Where the learner 

is right now 

How to get there 



 

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Teacher Clarifying and 

sharing 

learning intentions 

and 

criteria for success 

Engineering effective 

classroom 

discussions and tasks 

that elicit evidence of 

learning 

Providing 

feedback that 

moves learners 

forward 

Peer Understanding and 

sharing learning 

intentions and criteria 

for success 

Enabling students as instructional resources 

for one 

Another 

Learner Understanding 

learning 

intentions and criteria 

for 

success 

Activating students as the owners of their own 

Learning 

Table.1 (Adapted from William & Thompson, 2008, p. 63) 

William together with Thompson (2008), presented this matrix describing the role of student and 

teacher in an on-going classroom assessment model. Given the above criteria, formative 

assessment has facilitated a change in the practices of some instructors who are encouraged to 

develop their own assessment formats or to adapt the forms of assessment that help them gather 

helpful information about their students’ progress. The reason that alternative assessments are 

considered more authentic compared to the traditional forms that they hold approaches to “measure 

students’ learning that embeds both quantitative and qualitative features” (Herrera et al. 2007, p. 

25). 

Although the term “assessment for learning” is used interchangeably with “formative assessment” 

among many writers, Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall, and Wiliam (2003) make a clear distinction 

between the two. They argue, "assessment for learning is any assessment for which the priority in 

its design is to serve the purpose of promoting pupil's learning, compared to an assessment design 

that serves... to provide information to be used as feedback, by the teachers and pupils, in assessing 

themselves... to modify the teaching" (Black et al. 2003, p. 8). 



 

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Wiliam and Thompson (2008) observe, "an assessment is formative to the extent that information 

from the assessment is fed back within the system and actually used to improve the performance 

of the system in some way" (p. 61). 

2.3 Summative Assessment and the New Paradigm (Formative) 

Assessment in the context of education has been used primarily “in deciding, collecting and 

making judgments about evidence relating to the goals of the learning being assessed”, which 

makes no reference to how the information being collected could be used (Harlen, 

2006, p. 103).  

Assessment of learning, identified as summative assessment in the current literature, is deeply 

rooted in education and what has emerged along with it is the new paradigm, assessment for 

learning (formative assessment). 

Additionally, Harlen (2006) justifies changes in assessment practices, to be used in four purposes: 

diagnostic, formative, summative, and evaluative. 

The transformation of assessment practices, according to Herrera et al. (2007), is that “assessment 

of achievement has become increasingly standardized, norm referenced and institutionalized” (p. 

13). 

Another change that emerged is regarding assessment of achievement (summative assessment) and 

its negative effect on teaching and classroom climate and assessment (Firestone & Mayrowetz, 

2000).  

Herrera et al. (2007) state that while they have many uses, standardized tests nevertheless: Limit 

and negatively affect the quality of content-area instruction; prompt teachers to narrow the 

curriculum taught in classrooms; encourage “teaching to the test”; push students out of the system; 



 

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divert classroom instruction to an emphasis on low-level content and basic skills; and increase the 

redundancy of instruction (Herrera, Murry & Cabral 2007, p. 13). 

On the other hand, the alternative assessment provides more opportunities for the instructor to 

regularly observe students’ skills and capabilities and to adapt the lesson based on their needs. 

Alternative assessment can be characterized as any form of measuring student's knowledge or 

achievement other than the use of standard testing. It refers to “procedures and techniques which 

can be used within the context of instruction and can be easily incorporated into the daily activities 

of the school or classroom” (Hamayan, p.213). 

In other words, alternative ways of assessment offer more authentic, natural and meaningful 

communication between students and their teachers who can also benefit from getting more 

information about the students and their language learning (Moon, 2000; p.162). 

In accordance with the traditional system of assessment, clear criteria and aims have to be 

specified. Johnston states that in contrast with traditional assessment, the alternative assessments 

allow students to show what they can do rather than to catch them out with what they do not know 

(Johnston, 2003; p.91). That is, what is primarily evaluated are their strengths not their weaknesses. 

Furthermore, it enables documenting individual student growth over time without comparing 

students with one another.  

Assessment becomes even more relevant when students become involved in their own assessment. 

Kolář and Šikulová (2009), are of the view that, students taking an active role in developing the scoring 

criteria, self-evaluation, and goal setting; are more likely to accept that the assessment adequately 

measures their learning (Kolář and Šikulová, 2009; p.151). 

Self-assessment allows students to make judgements about their own work and also helps them to set 

new goals. 



 

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Moon posits that self-assessment gives an opportunity for teacher and students to work in partnership. 

If students learn to monitor and assess themselves, they can be more receptive to feedback and therefore 

more aware of their own needs (Moon, 2000; p.159). 

According to Harlen (2006), the formative assessment functions as a cycle of events, which 

identifies the learner’s position and his or her targeted goal (see Figure. 2). Students are viewed as 

active members of the class as opposed to the old version of assessment in which students were 

simply receivers of information. 

Chappuis and Stiggins (2004) agree that students are perceived to be passive actors in the 

traditional form of assessment rather than active learners in the new forms (formative assessment) 

who acquire the ownership of their learning.   

 

 



 

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Another issue that undermines the purpose of using assessment is the prediction made by the 

instructor that some "students will fail in the state-mandated test" (Wiliam & Thompson, 2008, p. 

61). 

Black and Wiliam (2008) further note the negative aspect of grade marking, considering that if a 

student gets lower scores in one or two terms, it creates a shared belief between the student and 

the teacher that he or she lacks high learning skills or is not intelligent enough. 

In addition, a consensus exists among educators that, if tests occur only at the end of cohort or 

term, the result can hardly be used to adapt instruction and to improve learning (Wiggins & 

McTighe, 2007; Black & Wiliam, 1998; Herrera, Murry & Cabral, 2007). 

Wiliam and Thompson (2008) distinguish between different terms used along with the term 

“formative assessment”: another way of thinking about the distinction being made here is the terms 

of monitoring assessment, diagnostic assessment, and formative assessment. 

An assessment monitors learning to the extent that it provides information about whether the 

student, class, school or system is learning or not; it is diagnostic to the extent that it provides 

information about what is going wrong; and it is formative to the extent that it provides information 

about what to do about it (p. 62). 

The literature on assessment and evaluation put emphasis on the formation of assessment tools and 

activities corresponding to the instruction that displays effectiveness, as opposed to poor 

assessment format which reduces “students’ motivation for learning, inadequately linked to 

instruction, and incorrect evaluation of effectiveness of instruction” (Dochy, 1997, p. 5). 

Dochy (1997) and De Corte (1991) also suggest that “powerful learning environments (PLEs),” 

an alternative to the old approach of learning, entails creating a balance between “personal 

exploration and systematic instruction” (Dochy, 1997, p. 5). This means that within a student-



 

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centred classroom, students are perceived as thinkers and active members, opposed to traditional 

approaches that see students as receivers of information and blank slats (Brooks and Brooks, 

1999). 

One main feature of high order assessment is high level instruction, making instruction and 

assessment complement of each other. 

Scholars argue that alternative assessment (the new paradigm) has a different “flavour associated” 

with test-driven instruction (Birenbaum & Dochy 1996, p. 12). This means that the alternative 

assessment is instruction-driven, given the assumption that it will have a positive impact on 

instruction, making the instruction real and authentic. 

Along with other scholars, Herrera et al. (2007) argue that the traditional forms of assessment, 

such as standardized tests, teacher-made tests, multiple choice, fill in the blank’s tests, etc., 

dominated schools and colleges through which the instructors could barely use the information 

provided by these tests to improve instruction.  

However, these scholars recognize that the old forms of tests are useful in comparing students, 

programs, and schools through quantitative representation. 

Birenbaum (1996) asserts, the role of the instructor in the modern form of assessment corresponds 

to the constructivist approach to education, viewing the instructor as a facilitator and mentor who 

provides opportunities for students to construct their own meaning (Dochy, 1997; Brooks & 

Brooks, 1999). 

In the constructive approach, learning is considered to be a process; that students (learners) create 

their own meaning of a lesson or concept, primarily, they rely on their prior knowledge, skills, and 

ability to critically analyse a context and resolve problems (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Brooks & 

Brooks, 1999). 



 

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2.4 Feedback (Key Characteristic of Alternative Assessment) 

The literature raises the issue of formative feedback by closely examining teachers’ responses to 

student's work. For example, if the teacher asks students to provide more details about a written 

work, the practice is characterized as formative; however, a concern arises as to whether the 

student know what the instructor meant when he or she asks for elaboration and more details 

(Wiliam & Thompson, 2008). 

Formative feedback contradicts the traditional evaluative comments teachers frequently use, such 

as well done, good, or great work and more. 

Chappuis and Stiggins (2004) argue that judgmental feedback not only holds less for value for 

improvement and student learning, but it also discourages students from learning. 

Black and Wiliam (1998) assert that formative feedback illuminates’ students’ strengths and 

weaknesses, provides some suggestion for improvement, and avoids comparing one student with 

his or her peers. 

There are various definitions presented about feedback in the literature; 

Ramaprasad (1983) describes feedback as a tool that provides information that has an impact on 

the performance, stating, "feedback is information about the gap between the actual level and the 

reference level of a system parameter which is used to alter the gap in some way". 

In addition, Black and Wiliam (1998) point out the importance of oral feedback provided by the 

teacher, enabling students to reflect on their learning. They write, “the dialogue between pupils 

and a teacher should be thoughtful reflective, focused to evoke and explore understanding… so 

that all pupils have an opportunity to think and to express their ideas”. 

In addition, the literature advocates for appropriate use of assessment aiming to improve learning 

and enhance instructions (Dochy, 1997; Nitko 1989, Birenbaum, 1996). 



 

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In educational assessment approach, called formative assessment, the instructor provides 

descriptive feedback for the student—indicating progress and guidance for future performance or 

remedial form, detailed so that students could improve their older work (Black & Wiliam 1998, 

Birenbaum & Dochy 1996). 

Student involvement in the process of assessment has been discussed as an influential tool in 

augmenting student learning. Wiliam and Thompson (2008) indicate that, contrary to the 

traditional forms, learners and their peers play a considerable role in assessment process in 

formative assessment. 

Chappuis and Stiggins (2004) reinforce the above point, stating, “classroom assessment that 

involves students in the process and focuses on increasing learning can motivate rather than merely 

measure students” (p. 40). 

However, a concern remains as to whether the students have acquired sufficient skills and a clear 

picture of the targets of their learning. Assessment for learning, when accompanied by students’ 

involvement in the process of development and implementation, appear more similar to teaching 

than to measurement (Davis, 2000). 

Along with other scholars, Chappuis and Stiggins (2004) emphasize the importance of student 

involvement in assessment, helping them to project their future plans and learning goals. 

They explain, “Student involvement in assessment means that students learn to use assessment 

information to manage their own learning” (p. 41). 

Furthermore, Dochy (1997), Black and Wiliam (1998) and Birenbaum (1996) observe that 

involving students in the process of assessment do not only reduce the burden of work for the 

instructor, but also assures students that they are viewed as active members who are responsible 

for their own progress. 



 

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Also, validity and reliability of assessment are two important issues in the field of education. They 

are perceived as core principles that modify assessment forms and practices. 

The concept of validity in formative assessment according to Herrera et al. (2007) “refers to the 

ability of an assessment, process, or product to measure the knowledge or skills it is intended to 

measure”. However, validity in summative forms of assessment is defined as the appropriate 

interpretation of assessment result, which deals with quantitative data (Linn & Miller, 2005).  

The term reliability in assessment, according to Herrera et al. (2007), “is understood as the power 

of an assessment to gather consistent evidence of skills, regardless of the examiner, time, place or 

other variables related to its administration” (p. 25). 

Linn and Miller (2005) define reliability as consistent assessment results that yield from a test. 

In addition, the literature refers to the main characteristic of reliability of authentic assessment, as 

well-defined criteria and detailed training for teachers and students in how to rate students’ work 

based on criteria (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Herrera et al., 2007). 

2.4.1 Formative Assessment (Alternative): Different Forms 

Most of the current literature uses the terms formative, alternative, and authentic assessment 

interchangeably; however, some disagreements still exist. Some scholars use the term “authentic 

assessment” as a part of formative assessment that happens during the learning process whereas 

summative assessment is considered to occur at the end.  

Furthermore, Herrera et al. (2007), include formative and summative assessment along with other 

types of authentic assessment, such as performance-based assessment, portfolios, self-assessment 

and peer assessment, interview-based assessment, play based assessment, cooperative groups 

assessment, dialogue, journal, and scaffold essays. Considering the many different forms of 



 

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formative assessment, an illustration of each may allow the reader to distinguish more easily 

among them, 

In addition, it should be noted that the following classification of different forms of assessment is 

primarily based on the work of Herrera et al. (2007). 

2.4.2 Diagnostic Assessment 

Although some scholars view diagnostic assessment separately from formative assessment, the 

intention is that diagnostic assessments are used for formative purposes. 

Diagnostic assessment or pre-assessment is used to collect information for planning instruction 

and acknowledging learners’ needs. 

Wiggins and McTighe (2007) assert that pre-assessments “include checks of prior knowledge and 

skill levels and surveys of interests or learning-style preferences” (p. 101). 

The scholars maintain that, given the literature, a great number of students come to school with a 

misconception that they are not talented enough to perform a certain task, such as drawing and 

colouring a picture or writing an analytic memo (Wiggins & McTighe, 2007). 

Given this scenario, a teacher is responsible for recognizing these misconceptions and finding 

ways to confront them. 

2.4.3 Portfolios 

Portfolio development is not a new concept in the history of education. 

According to Wiliam and Thompson (2008), gathering purposeful examples of students’ work that 

demonstrate their effort, progress, and level of understanding over a period to time, compose the 

main features of portfolio.  

However, what has changed through the course of time is the format and content, making portfolios 

meaningful and purposeful. 



 

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Wiggins and McTighe (2007) maintain that unlike the traditional forms of assessment that take a 

“snapshot” of students at one point in time, portfolios “function like a photo album containing a 

variety of photos taken at different times and different contexts” (p. 85). 

Similarly, Herrera et al. (2007) assert that the content of portfolios, which incorporate a collection 

of student work, “some indications that how student rated him/herself on the process and product 

included the evidences of how those products met the established criteria” (p. 29). 

Investigators emphasize the importance of considering the intended purposes for developing 

portfolios. By establishing the targets for a portfolio, an instructor can decide what kind of student 

work to incorporate, who should manage it, how often to review it, and more (Wiggins and 

McTighe, 2007). 

The instructors regularly assign students to include writing samples, reflections, drawings, reading 

logs, student self-evaluation, and progress notes, visuals and audio clips, among the many. 

According to Herrera et al. (2007), the common forms of portfolios contain best examples of 

students’ work that illustrate their learning and progress. 

In addition, portfolios are considered a good alternative to traditional forms of assessment because 

they incorporate the perspective of students and teachers about learning and assessment. Another 

significance of a portfolio is that unlike the traditional synoptic evaluations, such as the final exam 

or any standardized test that happens once, portfolios provide a longitudinal observation of student 

progress as they show incremental gains in knowledge, skills, and proficiencies (Herrera et al., 

2007). 

Portfolios are also authentic because they are driven by classroom activities; in most cases, they 

reflect “in-process adaptations to instructional methods and assessment”, and they assess learning 

which motivates students (Herrera et al., 2007, p. 32). 



 

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2.4.4 Self-Assessment 

Self-assessment is a valuable tool for learning and measurement. For example, when students are 

engaged in assessing their own work, they try to learn the criteria for high-quality performance, 

and they experience a willingness to apply those criteria (Herrera et al., 2007). 

However, Black and Wiliam (1998) remain concerned about student readiness to self-assess or 

evaluate peers. They propose that once students acquire a clear picture of the outcome or purpose, 

“they become more committed and more effective as learners: their own assessment become an 

object discussion with their teachers and with one another” (p. 7). 

Again, agreements exist among educators, in which they recognize the value of self and peer-

assessment which helps students exert control over their learning (Chappuis and Stiggins 2004). 

Initially, some teachers provide rubrics for student so that they can assess their progress. The 

rubrics incorporate the criteria that provide the opportunity for students to reflect on the extent to 

which they have made progress. 

Atkin, Black, and Coffey (2001) illustrate a feature of alternative assessment that asks learners to 

ask three questions as they assess themselves: “where am I trying to go?; where am I now; and 

how do I close the gap” (cited in Chappuis & Stiggins, 2004, p.43). 

2.4.5 Peer-Assessment 

Similar to self-assessment, educators consider peer-assessment advantageous, as it furthers 

opportunities for students to identify targeted learning goals (Herrera et al., 2007; & Chappuis & 

Stiggins, 2004). 

In peer-assessment, students often assess other students’ work compared to the criteria developed 

by the instructor, or both students and the class instructor. An important aspect of peer assessment 



 

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is that it engages students in dialogue with their classmates, commenting on each other’s work 

rather than a one-way feedback system from instructor to student. 

To enrich peer-assessment and use it productively, Black and Wiliam (1998) propose that students 

be trained to assess their peers purposefully, with the goal of improving learning. As students 

comment on their peers’ work, they use informal language which is understandable to them.  

According to Herrera et al. (2007), given the concept of peer-assessment, students compare other 

students’ work to the accepted criteria, which “enables them to discern outstanding elements of 

both their own and their classmate’s performances and products” (p. 34). 

2.4.6 Performance-Based Assessment 

Linn and Miller (2005) explain performance-based assessment as “snapshots of students learning 

in time, which provide a longer exposure with panoramic lens, or real-time video” (p.7).  

The idea that knowledge is constructed during the learning process and that a student discovers 

knowledge for him/herself, rather than receiving knowledge, inspires the notion of performance-

based assessment. This approach facilitates both the way students take information and the way 

they store and apply this information to deal with novel situations (Herrera et al., 2007). 

This means that, in addition to eliciting constructed responses, performance-based assessment 

incorporates authentic tasks that need higher level of thinking and application of skills. 

Herrera et al. (2007) interpret performance-based assessment as an opportunity that “tap (s) into 

the depth and breadth of students’ learning” (p. 28). 

2.4.7 Interview-Based Assessment 

Interview-based assessment is another form of alternative assessment the teachers use to gather 

data about students’ experiences, interests, background, thoughts, beliefs, activities etc. 

Teacher-student interviews vary from highly structured to informal conversations. 



 

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Herrera et al. (2007) agree that unstructured detailed interviews with students help teachers to 

adapt the lesson based on the information gathered from students. These scholars note that, through 

a teacher’s interview held with a student, the instructor realized that “linguistic differences can 

interfere with the development of deeper connections with students” (Herrera et al., 2007, p. 36). 

2.4.8 Play-Based Assessment 

Play-based assessment is a valuable assessment form that teachers can use at different grade levels. 

Examples include pre-school children who are learning the names of objects, language learners 

who can just barely explain things in the new language, and upper grade levels who role play or 

dramatize concepts from the literature, history, concurrent life situations, and politics (Herrera et 

al., 2007). 

Additionally, Herrera et al. (2007) indicate that assessment can take place in any manner but it 

does not mean that authentic assessment merely happens in non-traditional ways. 

Goodwin (2000) agrees “authentic assessment begins with teachers making it their business to 

purposefully watch, listen to, talk with, and think about the children in their classrooms” (p. 6). 

Some teachers reflect on who these children are, the extent of what they know, and the way they 

learn, based on the evidence that they observe in the role-play (Herrera et al., 2007). 

2.4.9 Co-operative Group Assessment 

The concept of group work or team work varies, depending on the context. In the Western world, 

particularly in the United States, an individual’s success attracts more attention than the 

accomplishments of team work, such as in sports, (Herrera et al., 2007).  

However, recent recognition of collaborative or team work is increasing among educators, 

realizing that strengths and skills of some students are well-defined when they are engaged in 

group activities such as cooperative learning or assessment.  



 

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Herrera et al. (2007) observe that “collaborative or group activities often culminate in projects or 

experiments that may or may not require oral or written reporting”. 

Moreover, Slavin (2006) argues that planning for group assessment requires educators to consider 

both group efforts and individual liability.  

Herrera et al. (2007) note the complexity of assessing a cooperative group activity, in particular 

distinguishing an individual student’s effort and the contribution he or she makes performing a 

group activity or project. 

Teachers often document the thought and action of individual students in the process of performing 

an activity as they learn from cooperative activities and the dialogue that occurs among the 

students. 

2.4.10 Dialogue Journals and Scaffolded Essays 

Accommodative or scaffolded authentic assessment may take various forms, including dialogue 

journals requiring students to write their thoughts about certain topics, or stories. Another form, 

scaffolded essays, allows the instructor to simplify a complex essay question by breaking it down 

into short answer questions. This is especially useful when assessing content information, because 

it reduces the stress of students who may assume that they will have to answer questions in an 

essay format (Berkowitz, Desmarais, Hogan, & Moorcroft, 2000). 

Aligning the other forms of authentic assessment, teachers collect useful “information about 

student learning through accommodated and scaffolded assignments” (Herrera et al., 2007, p. 39). 

The literature characterizes one goal of authentic assessment as finding out what students are 

capable of doing. In this assets-based approach, less value is placed on the deficit-based view of 

what students are not capable of (Black & Wiliam, 2005; Herrera et al., 2007). 

 



 

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2.4.11. Scoring in Formative Assessment 

The literature sheds light that one core reason teachers hesitate to use alternative assessment is 

because they provide little information in a numerical way.  

However, Herrera et al. (2007) assert that if teachers become aware of the many ways that 

formative assessment makes it possible to quantify or measure the information, this concern can 

be alleviated. Some ways to achieve this numerical representation are using rubrics, checklists, 

and questionnaires. 

Wiggins and McTighe (2007) define a rubric as a “criterion-based evaluation tool, consisting of a 

fixed measurement scale (such as four score points) and descriptions of the characteristics for each 

score point” (p. 87). Rubrics are used to engage students in the details of their own learning.  

Rubrics can be adapted based on grades of students, starting with picture style in pre-school and 

progressing to more structured forms in upper levels.  

Herrera, Murry and Cabral (2007) emphasize involving students in the process of creating rubrics, 

which provides an opportunity for the students to focus on the targeted goal, criteria. 

Herrera et al. (2007) summarize key tips to follow in developing a rubric: Determine the desired 

outcome, develop your current classroom practices as task that will create opportunities to students 

to demonstrate the targeted skill, determine what a good or high-quality performance on this task 

might look like, and complete the rubric by describing the requirements that must be met to attain 

each quantified level of performance” (p. 43). 

2.5 Summary  

In addition to these formats, there are other alternative assessments to measure student learning. 

Questionnaires and checklists are developed initially by identifying skills, knowledge, and 

competencies to perform a task. Given the identified knowledge and skills, a series of questions or 



 

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statements are developed to describe expected outcomes, taking into consideration the varying 

levels of students, as well.  

Herrera et al. (2007) believe that using questionnaires and checklists helps teachers to reduce 

repetitions, and they also provide information about students’ prior knowledge and what they bring 

into the classroom. 

Although alternative authentic assessments can be developed and used in ways that demonstrate 

students’ academic learning, Herrera et al. (2007) note that “such assessments are not immune to 

bias” (p. 46). This means that a teacher may provide more feedback to some students and less to 

some others, or the instructor may prioritize his/her perspective in assessing a performance, 

ignoring the fact that other voices and aspects should be considered accordingly. 

As can be summarized from the above discussion, increased student involvement in the process of 

assessment, can be used to reduce this concern (Wiliam & Thompson, 2008 & Herrera et al., 2007). 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

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CHAPTER THREE 

METHODOLOGY 

3.0 Introduction 

As indicated in the chapter one, this study has set out to investigate the alternative ways of 

assessing graduate students in GIJ. This chapter explains the methodology for the study as it gives 

an overview of the procedures that were used and the reasons for using such procedures. The 

research aims and objectives guided many of the significant choices throughout the duration of the 

research project (Partington, 2002; Saunders et al, 2000). The chapter includes the research 

approach, the research design and the method of data collection. The chapter also discusses how 

participants were selected as well as the analysis procedure.  

3.1 Research Design  

According to (MERIGAN & HUSTON , 2004, p. P48), research design is regarded as the logical 

sequence that connects a researchers claim, data or evidence and warrant”.                                         

Again, Wedam (2015), believes that the research design is the blue print for conducting the study 

that maximizes control over factors that could interfere with the validity of the findings.  

Designing a research or study helps the researcher to device and implement the study in a manner 

that will assist the researcher to attain intended results. 

John Creswell (2014), presents three different approaches to a research project: qualitative, 

quantitative, mixed method. These three approaches all have distinctive functions depending on 

the plan and procedures of the research project. However, the boundaries between the approaches 

are not as clear-cut as they might seem, and it is therefore normal to present a study as “more 

qualitative than quantitative or vice versa” (Creswell, 2014). 



 

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 A quantitative approach can be described as an approach with the aim of testing objective theories 

by using different variables and measuring these before the data can be analyzed further (Creswell, 

2014).  

Creswell (2014) explains a qualitative approach as an approach where the aim is to explore and 

understand the meaning behind a social or human problem by studying the complexity of a 

situation. 

A mixed method approach lies somewhere in the middle of the two aforementioned approaches, 

and can be recognized as an approach where both qualitative and quantitative data is collected in 

order to present a more thorough understanding of a research problem (Creswell, 2014).  

3.1.1 Qualitative Approach 

 Considering my research and research question, I believe that a qualitative approach is a more 

appropriate approach than a quantitative or a mixed method approach. My research objectivess 

aim to explore the key assessment techniques employed by Lecturers of Ghana Institute of 

Journalism; Investigate the views of lecturers on assessment methods used for Graduate Students; 

examine the views of Graduate Students on assessment methods employed by lecturers of GIJ; 

examine the benefits and challenges of assessment methods used at GIJ for Graduate Students.  

 According to Creswell (2014), the idea of qualitative research is to explore and study a problem 

from the participants’ views, as I aimed to do. One advantage of qualitative research is the dynamic 

structure of the approach, meaning that the researcher can change the process throughout the 

research. This is especially useful as the researcher may discover new information or insights 

concerning the research, and thus has the opportunity to alter the process if needed.               

Regarding a qualitative research approach and different worldviews, the common idea is that 



 

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qualitative research is located within the constructivist worldview. The constructivist worldview 

can be recognized as a worldview where the participants’ views and understanding of a subject are 

subjective, varied, and multiple (Creswell, 2014).  

Considering my research question, it is reasonable to expect the participants’ contribution to be 

both subjective and varied. Therefore, the research question I used was relatively open, and the 

participants of the study were not restricted in regard to their answers. So, the role of the researcher 

is to interpret the participants’ experiences, thoughts, and underlying opinions about the topic of 

the research question.  

In qualitative research it is common for the researcher to be the tool of interpretation. The 

researcher is also central in regard to a phenomenological design, as it is the researcher’s 

responsibility to describe the participants’ experiences concerning the project (Creswell, 2014).  

3.2 Methods of Data Collection  

Qualitative research is often recognized as data gathered from observations, interviews, or through 

public or private documents (Creswell, 2014). 

Also, qualitative research method allows the researcher to cover subject matter in great depth due 

to its flexibility.  

Considering my research project and my research question, I will argue that interviews are a 

suitable and advantageous data collection method. It will enable me to interact with research 

subjects thoroughly, avoid prejudgment and provide data collection based on students and 

lecturers’ experiences. 

 



 

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3.2.1 Semi-Structured Interview  

The different types of interviews can be assorted into structured interviews, semi-structured 

interviews, and unstructured interviews (Creswell, 2014). 

A structured interview is recognized as a set of fixed questions where the questions are asked in a 

particular order. A semi-structured interview is similar to a structured one, but the structure of the 

questions is more flexible. Some questions may be decided beforehand, but the researcher has 

more freedom to alter the phrasing and the order of the questions throughout the interview process 

(Creswell, 2014).  

An unstructured interview can be described as an interview where the questions are not decided 

beforehand, but they are developed during the interview process. The types of questions that 

develop depend on the topic of the research. 

 In regard to my research question, I will argue that the most advantageous type of interview is a 

semi-structured interview. A semi-structured interview is a versatile method of collecting data, 

especially if the goal is to explore the experiences of different participants (Galletta, 2013).           

My research question places a focus on the participants experiences, making semi-structured 

interview a useful method of data-collection.  

In addition, Creswell (2014) emphasizes a benefit of semi-structured interviews which is the 

opportunity to ask follow-up questions in order to clarify any potential misunderstanding.                   

However, I incorporated open-ended questions concerning differentiated instruction, as these 

questions have the advantage of giving the participants the opportunity to provide in-depth 

information about a subject through explanation.  



 

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Furthermore, in semi-structured interviews, the participants can speak their mind without the 

boundaries of rigid questioning (Galletta, 2013). 

Besides, semi-structured interviews can help reduce the researcher’s influence on the participants 

and their answers, because the participants are able to speak their minds, arguably ensuring that 

the participants’ answers are of high accuracy (Galletta, 2012). 

3.2.2 The Interview Guide  

An interview guide is useful as it can function as a quality insurer in regard to the interview, as 

well as creating a structure for the interview (Creswell, 2014).  

Creswell (2012) also states that, the structure of the questions in the interview guide can be flexible, 

but it is common that the interview contains both key and follow-up questions. This is supported 

by Creswell (2014) and Galletta (2013) who argue that the questions used in the interviews vary 

from ice-breaker questions and background questions concerning the theme of the interview, to 

follow-up questions and key questions about the 20 topics later on.  

Galleta (2013) states that background questions and “icebreaker” questions are often used at the 

beginning of the interview as they can help to “ease the participant” into the interview process and 

the topic of the interview. 

Furthermore, questions asked at the beginning of the interview can be used by the researcher in 

order to receive the interviewee’s general understanding and experience concerning the topic at 

hand. 

Follow-up questions, as mentioned above, are beneficial as they can help the researcher to get as 

much useful information from the participant as possible. 



 

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In addition, probing questions are useful as they can be used in order help interviewees explain 

their ideas in more detail (Creswell, 2014). 

Probing questions are questions about a certain theme or idea brought up during the interview 

which the researcher wants the participants to elaborate on. Such questions are often used to keep 

the participants on track and to avoid receiving too many unnecessary answers. 

However, probing questions can therefore be useful in semi-structured interviews, as the openness 

of semi-structured interviews can easily lead to the participants getting off-topic (Price, 2002). 

I used all these types of questions in my interview, however, considering the fact that I conducted 

a semi-structured interview; some questions that were asked were not necessarily planned 

beforehand. The type of questions I used in my interview guide were determined by my research 

question.  

Before I conducted the interviews with the participants, I did a pilot interview using two of my 

fellow students. This was done in order to best prepare and review the interview process and the 

interview guide.  

Galletta (2013) states that a pilot interview can provide the researcher with new ideas regarding 

the phrasing, structure, and usefulness of the questions.   

In addition, Creswell (2014) emphasizes a benefit of semi-structured interviews which is the 

opportunity to ask follow-up questions in order to clarify any potential misunderstanding. 

I incorporated open-ended questions concerning differentiated instruction, as these questions had 

the advantage of giving the participants the opportunity to provide in-depth information about a 

subject through explanation. 



 

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Furthermore, in semi-structured interviews, the participants can speak their mind without the 

boundaries of rigid questioning (Galletta, 2013). 

Besides, semi-structured interviews can help reduce the researcher’s influence on the participants 

and their answers, because the participants are able to speak their minds, arguably ensuring that 

the participants’ answers are of high accuracy (Galletta, 2012). 

The study interviews were constructed in a way that it did not reveal the identity of the participants 

by not requesting for their names which may give a clue about their persons. The participants were 

briefed about the purpose of the research and to give them the maximum respect.  

3.3 The Selection of Participants  

The target population for the study is students from the GIJ. I recruited a number of participants 

purposively by considering their levels and gender till I reached saturation. 

Also, four lecturers were purposively selected to participate in this study. The assumption is that 

four participants would provide me with sufficient amount of data and that it would also realize 

the norm of phenomenological research where three to ten participants is a typical (Creswell, 

2014).  

A research project with fewer participants can be a hinder to the generalizability of the study. On 

the other hand, too many participants and the time aspect become a hinder, and may lead to a less 

careful interview analysis. Besides, generalizability is not the main goal of qualitative research. 

The decision to recruit lecturers from this level was to answer my research objective 1 and 2 which 

are;  

i. To highlight the key assessment techniques employed by Lecturers of Ghana Institute of 

Journalism and  



 

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ii. To investigate the views of lecturers on assessment methods used for Graduate Students. 

On the other hand, the students selected will help answer research objective 3 and 4. 

3.4 Method of Data-Analysis 

I used a recorder to record the interviews, which I later on transcribed. This was done to enable 

me focus on the topic and the dynamic of the interview with the participant. With a recorder I was 

able to catch all the stops, pauses, and the tone of voice, which I consequently included in the 

transcripts and in the analysis.  

Creswell (2010) argues that the transcription process should be done by the researcher because the 

analysis and interpretation of the transcripts might lead to the discovery of new relevant aspects of 

the data collected - aspects which were not noticed during the interview. 

On the other hand, transcription as a method does have some disadvantages, such as preserving 

reliability and validity. 

Creswell (2014) states that a large disadvantage is that the transcripts will not include any visual 

signal given from the interviewee, nor is it able to register the mood during the interview. 

Since I transcribed the interview myself, I was able to revisit the interview process and was 

therefore able to register the visual signal which I registered, which is another reason why a 

researcher should be a part of the transcription process. In order to increase the reliability of my 

transcripts I listened to the recorded interviews repeatedly and made sure that I did not leave out 

anything. 

To secure validity, I included the pauses, stops, and tones that I registered in the interviews in 

order to for the transcripts to be accurate 



 

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Coding of collected data is a common method to use when the data collected derives from the 

interviews. Coding is beneficial as it helps the researcher to organize and present relevant 

information of the data collected (Creswell, 2014).  

The first stage in the coding process is to read through all the collected data, which in this case are 

the interview transcripts. This is done to help the reader get a general impression of the interview 

and be able to review it without a too rigorous focus on the details. Having done this, I made a list 

of all the key words and phrases that I considered to be relevant regarding my research question 

(Creswell, 2014).  

Content analysis is useful for my study to compare the data collected with existing theory on 

differentiated instruction. 

Thematic analysis was also used to identify categories from the data collected. The usefulness of 

a thematic approach to coding is apparent, as some of the data collected is likely to involve topics 

that I had not planned to focus on.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

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CHAPTER FOUR 

CONCLUSION 

Higher education is considered to be a critical component of human development across the world. 

It equips a person with relevant professional skills required for market and living. 

According to Sadler, 2010, it is through higher education that students or individuals by acquiring 

the capacity and potential contribute to economic development of the society. 

Considering this factor of significance of skill-based learning at higher level, universities pledge 

tremendous efforts in ensuring that learners are prepared for the market (Astin, 2012). 

Hence, teaching and learning is planned in accordance and all related components pertinent to this 

that is assessment, co-curriculum activities, research and projects are given relevance. (Brown, 

Bull, & Pendlebury, 2013). 

Assessment in higher education level is considered to be the most crucial element of learning and 

development. 

Students are however, assessed by the Universities in order to ensure that the knowledge, 

understanding and skills are acquired or gained by the learners (Falchikov, 2013).                                                   

The true essence of assessment is therefore, to explore the level and quality of learning acquired 

by a student or an individual, by testing how a certain concept is acquired and its understanding is 

accommodated in the mind of the learner and building upon how learners can use that particular 

learning for seeking professional solutions and practical life (Stephenson & Yorke, 2013).  



 

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Experts of andragogy deliberate specified sets of techniques that should be used in adult learning 

and assessment and suggest it should mostly be experiential, independent, and research oriented 

and this is widely acknowledged and implemented in the Western part of the world.  

However, it is catching a bull-cart speed in Sub-Saharan Africa specifically in countries like 

Ghana.  

Teachers play a significant role in planning, designing, administrating and evaluating learning 

assessment whilst their perceptions related to this key component of learning are of a great value 

(Liu, 2011).  

Also, teachers if are not satisfied with the technique of assessment, lacks clarity, untrained, 

unplanned and does not incorporate students’ feedback in planning assessment can result in a 

major chaos (Hughes & Barrie, 2010).                                                                                                          

It is therefore, fundamental to see to it that, all teachers’ perceptions pertinent to assessment are 

incorporated in planning curriculum (Tight, 2012). 

Bearing in mind implication of this key phenomenon, findings of this study sets grounds for 

exploring alternative ways of assessment at Universities in Ghana, specifically the Ghana Institute 

of Journalism.  

Assessment in higher education is therefore an important task which needs to be strategized and 

applied efficiently for effective learning. 

In order to have effective assessment, the current assessment techniques need to be reviewed or 

amended so that practical aspects and real-life applications of course contents could be given more 

significance.  



 

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For effective assessment, Universities are also suggested to involve practical approaches/exposure 

or hands on approaches in curriculum, develop entrepreneurial abilities among students and 

discourage spoon feeding practices to the students and sit-down exams even at the graduate level 

and focus more on experiential or field learning rather than on the theoretic knowledge. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

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