i 
 

GHANA INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM 

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH (SOGSaR) 

 

AN EVALUATION OF CRISIS COMMUNICATION PRACTICES IN THE GHANAIAN 

TELECOMMUNICATION INDUSTRY 

BY 

ISRAEL NORSHIE ASIWOME 

MAPR19031 

 

A LONG ESSAY SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND 

RESEARCH OF THE GHANA INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM, IN PARTIAL 

FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE 

IN PUBLIC RELATIONS  

 

OCTOBER, 2020

  



ii 
 

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION 

I do hereby declare that the work presented is the result of my own effort, original research and 

findings and that no part of it has been presented for another degree or diploma in this University 

or elsewhere. All references to other people’s work have been duly acknowledged. I am therefore 

to be held responsible for any error that might be detected in this project work. 

 

 

Name:  Israel Norshie Asiwome  

Date: 2
nd

 October, 2020                   

Signature:                  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



iii 
 

 

 

SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION 

I hereby declare that the preparation of this long essay was supervised in accordance with the 

guidelines for the supervision of long essays as laid down by the Ghana Institute of Journalism. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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DEDICATION 

First and foremost this piece is dedicated to God Almighty as a token of my appreciation for his 

sufficient grace, mercy and knowledge he has blessed me with.  Secondly I dedicate it to my 

indefatigable supervisor Dr. Rabiu K.B Asante because his understanding, patience and guidance 

without which I would not have completed this research work. Lastly, I dedicate this to my 

family and to every young person who has a dream.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



v 
 

 

 

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

I would like to take this opportunity to thank the Almighty God for His guidance, strength, and 

knowledge which enabled me to undertake this long essay. I am very grateful to the Almighty 

God for seeing me through this course. 

My profound gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr. Asante for his continuous support of my study 

and the long essay, enthusiasm, motivation, patience, and immense knowledge he shared with 

me which helped shape the work to its present level. The guidance of my supervisor helped me 

considerably throughout the project work. I could not have been successful without his advice 

and support. I am also grateful to my lecturers at GIJ for the in-depth knowledge and 

understanding I gained from their advice, criticism and suggestions. I feel privileged to have 

come under their tutelage. Also to Dr. Ike Tandoh and Mr. Anthony Tetteh.  

Last but not the least, I acknowledge family and friends for the technical, financial and moral 

support they provided in the course of the long essay. I appreciate their encouragement and 

support throughout the period. Your encouragement, assistance and advice have been 

instrumental and helpful to me. I ask that the Lord Almighty to bless you all abundantly.  

  



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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION ................................................................................................ ii 

SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION .............................................................................................. iii 

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iv 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................................. v 

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. viii 

1.1 Background of the study ....................................................................................................... 1 

1.2 Statement of the problem ...................................................................................................... 4 

1.3 Research Objectives .............................................................................................................. 6 

1.4 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 6 

1.5 Significance of the study ....................................................................................................... 7 

1.6 Scope of the study ................................................................................................................. 7 

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 9 

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 9 

2.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 9 

2.1 Definition of Concepts .......................................................................................................... 9 

2.1.1 Definition of crisis .......................................................................................................... 9 

2.1.2 Definition of communication ........................................................................................ 10 

2.1.3 Definition of crisis communication .............................................................................. 11 

2.1.4 Conceptualization of Crisis Communication ................................................................ 11 

2.2 Theoretical Literature Review ............................................................................................. 11 

2.2.1 Situational Crisis Communication Theory ................................................................... 12 

2.2.2 Chaos theory ................................................................................................................. 14 

2.2.1 Types of Crisis .............................................................................................................. 16 

2.2.2 Crisis Management and Stages ..................................................................................... 17 

2.2.3 Relationship between crisis management and crisis communication ........................... 21 

2.3 Empirical Literature Review ............................................................................................... 22 

2.3.1 Crisis communication methods/strategies used by organizations ................................ 22 

2.3.2 Effectiveness of crisis communication strategies ......................................................... 25 

2.3.3 Crisis communication as a part of management’s overall strategy and organizational 

policy on crisis communication ............................................................................................. 26 

CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 28 



vii 
 

METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 28 

3.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 28 

3.1 Research Approach ............................................................................................................. 29 

3.2 Research Design .................................................................................................................. 29 

3.3 Target Population ................................................................................................................ 30 

3.4 Sample Size ......................................................................................................................... 31 

3.5 Sampling technique ............................................................................................................. 31 

3.6 Sources of data .................................................................................................................... 32 

3.7 Research instrument ............................................................................................................ 33 

3.8 Data analysis ....................................................................................................................... 34 

3.9 Ethical considerations ......................................................................................................... 35 

CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 36 

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................... 36 

4.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 36 

4.1 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 36 

4.2 Contribution to literature ..................................................................................................... 37 

4.3 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 37 

4.4 General Recommendation ................................................................................................... 38 

4.5 Recommendation for further studies ................................................................................... 38 

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 39 

 

 

 

  



viii 
 

ABSTRACT 

The research generally seeks to assess the crisis communication practices in selected 

telecommunication companies in Ghana. This study adopted a qualitative approach to social 

science research and used the explorative research design, which best suited the objective of 

seeking to evaluate the crisis communication practices in the Ghanaian telecommunication 

industry. A purposive sampling method was used and data was collected using the interview 

guide administered in English. The researcher proposed the of semi-structured interview guide to 

elicit relevant data. The use of a thematic analysis approach will help generate meanings useful 

to resolve the research objectives based on the transcriptions of the interviews.  



1 
 

CHAPTER ONE 

INTRODUCTION 

1.1 Background of the study 

In today’s business world and society, crises are inevitable and necessitate the ability to 

manage them (Gebeyehu, 2018). A crisis is conventionally said to be an unforeseen event or 

phenomenon that affects an organization or “individuals and may lead to financial loses and 

damage reputations, or can affect stakeholder relations (Coombs, 2010; Pearson & Clair, 

1998; Ulmer, Sellnow & Seeger, 2007). These crises situations pose risks to the lives of 

people and the sustainability of organizations (Coombs, 2010). Such crisis situations in the 

long run also has the tendency to cut off the prospects of businesses and expectation of 

stakeholders (Heath, 2012) and also can undermine the integrity of a business, hence the need 

for a better management of crisis.  Scholars through their researches have postulated that an 

effective use of crisis communication such as responding quickly, efficiently, and effectively 

in times of crisis plays a significant role in managing, transforming and diluting the crisis 

situation. (Coombs, 2010c; Fediuk, Coombs & Botero, 2010).   

Crisis communication is described as a plan containing communication strategy that seeks to 

safeguard an organization and well-position it to manage prospective and real crises and 

events, the plan also includes collecting and circulating crisis-related information to 

stakeholders (Fearn- Banks, 2016 p.2). In most instances, the approaches adopted in handling 

and managing information during crisis contributes immeasurably to the rebuilding and 

return to normality of organizations and repairing of their reputation (Zuzak & Konigova, 

2009, p. 50-55). Albeit the bottlenecks that crisis situations come with, successfully 

managing them has the potential to strengthen stakeholders' trust and augment the 

organizations reputation (Šontaitė-Petkeviciene, 2014, p.4531; Motarjemi, 2014, p.1053). 



2 
 

This to say that, a crisis situation is not only a negative phenomenon but the management of 

the situation effectively can also do the organization a lot of good. It must be noted that, 

communication failures during crises pose a danger to stakeholders (Lanard & Sandman, 

2014; Levinson, 2014; McKay, 2015).   Communication is the critical component of crisis 

management  this according to the Handbook of Crisis Communication (2010:17). The above 

comes to entrench the position that, the success or failure of managing crises is dependent on 

how an organization uses communication before, during, and after a crisis as this is vital in 

determining the organization's ability to recover from the crisis (Zaremba, 2010).  

According to Hargis and Watt (2010), crises situations can be faced at any stage of an 

organization’s life cycle, this is because risks are divers and sometimes don’t sound warnings 

when coming.  An individual or organization is best positioned if they have the ability to 

identify the potential crisis that can hit them, this will afford them the opportunity to plan, 

prepare and better manage the potential risks that are associated with crisis i.e.;  public safety, 

financial loss and reputational loss , (www.instituteforpr, 2014). Notwithstanding the above 

statements on how the effective management of crisis can be helpful to an organization, 

repeatedly, most organizations take the reactive approach: waiting for crisis to happen and 

then they engage in firefighting. Sometimes, irrespective of the efforts put into damage 

control, a negative perception is hard to erase. In place of the firefighting,  crisis prevention  

is a better approach (Gabrowski Mark, 2010). 

Dzenan, (2017) motioned that just when one may be thinking that the worse is behind us, new 

crisis arises, it is almost as if we are living in one everlasting world of crisis. Many 

individuals and organizations worldwide have experienced crisis situations that threatened 

their very existence, from the worldwide pandemic Covid-19 that has both affected 

individuals and organizations WHO (2020). Example of other crisis situations that were 



3 
 

carried out by credible news portals such as the CNN will be that of  Eldrick Tont  Tiger  

Woods, an American professional golfers mid-life crisis, the BP oil rig explosion in the Gulf 

of Mexico in 2010 which resulted in millions of gallons of oil spilt, the recent financial sector 

crises in Ghana, the Melcom building collapse in Achimota, Ghana, the nationwide energy 

crisis of ECG in Ghana and also the poor network challenges experienced in Ghana by the 

major telecommunication service providers.  

According to (Coombs, 2015), research’s conducted into crisis communication practices have 

brought to bear some useful and clearly defined procedures for practice that often placed 

emphasis on the need for the accountability of organizations in crisis among others. Most 

articles reviewed for this study placed emphasis on the need for an open and responsible 

communication which suggest that the organizations should steal thunder: This to say that the 

organizations or individuals themselves should divulge incriminating information instead of 

making an attempt to hide it or to engage in needless propaganda during crises (Claeys & 

Cauberghe, 2012). 

Notwithstanding all the efforts and gains made, the mind-bugling question here remains: are 

these guidelines known and understood by practitioners, if yes, how do they apply them in 

practice. Some available literature suggests that practitioners acknowledge the value of 

stealing thunder and other strategies but rarely self-disclose crises or practice these guidelines 

during crisis (Kline, Simunich, & Weber, 2009; Ulmer, 2012). As such, there might be a gap: 

meaning their might be available theoretical guidelines or policy documents on crisis 

communication which is accessible and understood by practitioners in organizations but the 

willpower to practice them may be missing. 

According to Osei-Owusu (2018), Ghana was among the few first African countries that 

progressed from a government- controlled Telecommunication (Telco’s) market to a much 



4 
 

more competitive market, with well-organized private sector participation. Though there is 

liberalization, Government has not seized playing its role in creating an enabling environment 

for growth and regulates the sector appropriately as overseen by the National Communication 

Authority under the Ministry of Communication which was established in 1997.  

According to inewsafrica.com (2015), The Telecom industry in Ghana has been a driver for 

economic growth, representing 7 percent of investment in Ghana, forms 10 percent of 

government income and 2 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2010. This places the 

telecommunication industry not only as an essential service provider but a contributor to 

government revenue, not forgetting they are responsible for connecting the 30 MILLION 

Ghanaians both via call and Data. This place the industry in the bracket of essential service 

providers hence the need to better manage crisis in the sector.  

According to Darling (1994), a crisis could be seen as both a hampering phenomenon and 

also an opportunity to an organization, as the Chinese word for crisis wei-ji (a dangerous 

opportunity) double confirms. This highlights the importance of the topic, hence the need to 

delve dipper into it. Individuals and organizations must be well prepared for any crisis 

situation that may befall them to help them to properly plan, respond and maneuver their way 

through. It is in this context that this study seeks to evaluates the crisis communication 

practices of players in the telecommunication industry in Ghana but will select some 

telecommunication service providers such as MTN Ghana, Vodafone and AirtelTigo.  

 

1.2 Statement of the problem 

No organization is exempted from crises (Bernstein, 2013). Hence, the need for effective and 

efficient crisis communication cannot be taken for granted as a crisis situation is capable of 



5 
 

destroying an organizations image and reputation and by extension the business as a whole 

(Fearn-Banks, 2007).  

According to Coombs & Holladay, (2008) Research conducted suggests that what 

organizations decide to do before, during and after crisis - crisis response strategies - goes a 

long way to guarding organizations reputation. Notwithstanding, most post crisis 

communication research has relied on case study methods which could offer valued 

descriptive data but they offer little or no insight into how stakeholders actually respond to 

crisis. According to Dean (2004) case studies offer insignificant theoretical understanding of 

crisis communication. Though there are a lot of research conducted into crisis 

communication, there is still a need for a research regarding the applicability of 

communication strategies, and stakeholder consideration, scholars suggest (Coombs, 2010b; 

Heath, 2012). Theorization of communication studies in Africa has generally been under-

represented in main- stream literature although there are few classical works. 

Based on articles reviewed for this study by kiambi and Shafer (2016), Boudreaux (2005), 

Gebeyehu (2018), Mazzei (2014), Abdullah and Antony (2012), and Kukule (2012) just to 

mention a few, it’s evident that there has been more works done in this area outside Africa 

but little has been done in Africa, especially in Ghana where only one article of Ampofo-

Bekoe (2014) was reviewed though our telecommunication industry have experienced a 

number of crisis situations but there has been little or no investigation and proper 

documentation. Mare (2020) concurred with the above assertion by stating that there is an 

under representation of both empirical and theoretical literature from Africa to the main 

stream literature in the filed although there are some classical works by Africans.  Therefore, 

the study will use an explorative research design to show who does what, when it’s done 

during the crisis phase and the how they are done. Research questions from this study 

attempts to bring to the fore the research gaps: what telco’s do regarding crisis 



6 
 

communication formally that we don’t know, the role of the public relations or corporate 

affairs department (practitioners) before, during and post crisis, it also investigates policy 

documents or road maps available and the divers strategies employed during a crisis situation 

in the various phases. Additionally, the study investigates the effectiveness of the crisis 

communication strategies deployed and challenges.  

 

1.3 Research Objectives  

The research generally seeks to assess the crisis communication practices in selected 

telecommunication companies in Ghana. At the end of the study, the researcher expects to 

achieve the following specific objectives.  

1. To identify the crisis communication methods/strategies used by telecommunication 

companies in Ghana. 

2. To establish the effectiveness of this methods or strategies adopted  

3. To examine how crisis communication forms a part of management’s overall strategy. 

 

1.4 Research Questions  

The study developed the following questions to guide researcher’s quest to finding solutions 

to the research problems: 

1.  What crisis communication methods/strategies are used by telecommunication 

companies in Ghana? 

2. How effective are this methods or strategies adopted? 

3. How does crisis communication form a part of management strategy? 

 



7 
 

1.5 Significance of the study  

This study will not only fill the void in literature with respect to crisis communication 

practices in Ghana’s telco industry but will provide a blue print for use in times of crisis as it 

documents and makes available the best practices deployed by telco companies who are 

getting it right and also propose same to others with no crisis communication strategies and 

policy document that guides their practice. This comes off on the back of available literature 

which suggests that when crises situations are planned for, managed and strategies are well 

executed, it might provide an opportunity for the organization.  

The telco industry players through this research will have a tried and tested approach to 

handling crisis situations and also crisis communication strategies that are time-relevant. The 

study also will serve as a new body of knowledge and will add up to the already exiting 

literature on crisis communication and serve as a reference guide for future studies. 

 

1.6 Scope of the study  

This study focuses on three telco companies in Ghana namely, MTN Ghana who are leaders 

in the industry, Vodafone Ghana and Airteltigo. The practitioners in these organizations in 

charge of crisis communication or strategy development in relation to communication are 

considered as part of the study. 

 

1.7 Organization of the Study 

The study is divided into five (5) different chapters. The first chapter provided the primary 

introduction of the study. It proposes the extensive construction inherent in this study and 

thus, provided adequate background of information to allow readers understand the reasons 

behind this study and what it intends to accomplish. The chapter gives an overview of the 



8 
 

whole study. This comprises of background of the study, problem statement, research 

objectives, research questions, significance, scope and organization of the study. Chapter 

Two of the work reviews earlier theoretical and empirical research related to the research 

topic with specific reference to the research objectives. It presents extracts from books, 

journals and collected works that are helpful in carrying out this research and justifying key 

conclusions and recommendations.  Chapter three dealt with the methodology of the study 

thus, how data was collected, organized and analyzed. It suggests the varied techniques and 

tools used to collect and analyses data to gain valid results. Chapter Four provides research 

findings” and data analysis obtained through the methodology outlined in chapter three and 

Chapter Five gives a summary of findings, conclusions from the study and recommendations 

for users of the research. 

 

 

  



9 
 

CHAPTER TWO 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.0 Introduction 

This chapter reviews literature in relation to crisis communication and has been organized 

into two distinct parts: Theoretical and Empirical literature. The “theoretical literature 

reviews theories and concepts on crisis communication while the empirical reviewed already 

conducted studies by others in the same field of study. The literature review further breaks 

the empirical review into clear and concise themes related to the research objectives and adds 

a conceptual framework that is necessary for the understanding of the study.  

 

2.1 Definition of Concepts  

2.1.1 Definition of crisis  

There are no standardized definitions for the term crisis but some few characteristics stand 

out and give a heads up and a background into what a crisis situation may be said to be: 

significant threat(s), unpredictability, and urgency (Coombs 1999, 2007; Falkheimer and 

Heide 2006). Barton (1993, p. 2) defined crisis as a major unpredictable event that has 

potentially negative results.  The happenings may leave an organization in bad state with 

effects on employees, products, services, financial condition, as well as reputation.  

Similarly, Fearn‐Banks (1996, p. 1) considered a crisis a major unpredictable event that has 

potentially negative outcome affecting an organization, company, or industry, as well as its 

publics, products, services, or good name.  Coombs (1999, 2007) more clearly addressed the 

similar characters by defining crisis as an event that is an unpredictable, a major threat that 

can have a negative effect on the organization, industry, or stakeholders if handled 

improperly.  



10 
 

More recently, he fleshed out this definition saying, a crisis is a sudden and unexpected event 

that threatens to disrupt an organization's operations and poses both a financial and 

reputational threat (2007, p. 164). He further classified it by adding onto the crisis definition 

saying, the perception of an unpredictable event that threatens important expectancies of 

stakeholders and can seriously impact an organization's performance and generate negative 

outcomes (2010, p. 19). Institute for Crisis Management, a research‐based crisis management 

consulting firm in the United States, defines a crisis as a significant business disruption that 

stimulates extensive news media coverage. The resulting public scrutiny will affect the 

organization's normal operations and also could have a political, legal, financial, and 

governmental impact on its business (Gower 2006). In sum, crises are unusual occurrences 

that cannot be predicted but are expected and entail significant threats (Coombs 2010 Gower 

2006). 

This study will use the definition of crisis as defined by Coombs 2010 and Gower 2006 

because the definition is recent and encompasses most of the relevant characteristics of crisis 

as it’s an unpredicted event but expected and comes along with substantial risks that can exit 

the business existence if not well managed.  

 

2.1.2 Definition of communication 

Communication can be described as the process of transferring, information or knowledge 

and common understanding from one person to another (Keyton, 2011). The word 

communication is said to result from the Latin expression, communis, which means normal. 

Communication hinges on shared meaning and the definition highlights that fact that there is 

no communication unless there is a mutual understanding arising from the exchange of the 

said information. 

 



11 
 

2.1.3 Definition of crisis communication 

According to Fishman (1999:348) Crisis communication is a phenomenon that comprises an 

interaction between divers’ stakeholders internal and external in a continuously fluctuating 

atmosphere and obliges effective communication for maintaining these relationships. Fearn-

Banks (2007:9) reiterated this saying, crisis communication is the interaction between an 

organization and its stakeholders before, during and after a crisis.   

2.1.4 Conceptualization of Crisis Communication  

Crisis communication is the communication between the entity and its publics before, during 

and after a traumatic event (Fearn-Banks, 1996:2). Indeed, a crisis management program 

includes fostering a learning mindset around the company, welcoming research and 

partnering with others (McEntire, 2007). The Crisis Communications Handbook (2012) 

clarified the form of communication that revolves around the pre-crisis crisis communication 

activities. This includes the preparation of stakeholders, the gathering and analysis of 

information for crisis decision-making teams, as well as the development and distribution of 

crisis messages to outsiders.  Effective crisis communication begins before the crisis reaches” 

the company and should be part of every organization's business and strategic strategies 

(Ulmer, Sellnow, and Seeger, 2007: 35). 

 

2.2 Theoretical Literature Review  

Varied theories on crisis communication exist and offer “different strategies and steps on 

how to plan and execute crisis communication. These theories focus on the messages and 

meaning construction that surround unexpected, crisis events (Seeger & Sellnow, 2013).  

Nevertheless, crisis communication being a very young academic research discipline 

originates from Excellence Theory in Public Relations that was generated through a study of 

best practice in public relations lead by James E. Gruning (1992). This theory is a general 



12 
 

theory of public relations that specifies how public relations makes organizations more 

effective, how it is organized and managed, when it contributes most to organizational 

effectiveness, the conditions in organizations and their environments that make 

organizations more effective, and how the monetary value of public relations can be 

determined (Gruning, 1992).   

(Liu and Fraustino, 2014: pg 543) suggest that existing crisis communication theories can be 

divided into three categories: the image-making crisis communication theories, resilience 

generating crisis communication theories, and the complexity-understanding crisis 

communication theories. These theoretical approaches entail different crisis communication 

theories that provide different ways of understanding and dealing with crisis. 

The dominant theories in the field focus on reputation and image repair. These theories focus 

on saving an organization’s image and protecting its reputation, and thus protecting it from 

other negative effects of a crisis situation. These image-making theories include the widely 

used Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT). On the other hand, resilience 

generating crisis theories concentrate on how to move on from a crisis. Discourse of renewal 

for instance does not focus on image repair, but rather on recovering from a crisis together 

with the public. Complexity-understanding theories include theories such as the chaos theory 

and the complexity theory, which emphasize the complicated nature of crises. This research 

will rely on the Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) and the chaos theory as 

theories in examining the problem to be investigated.  

 

2.2.1 Situational Crisis Communication Theory 

Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT, 2007) by W. Timothy Coombs is a crisis 

management theory. It implies that crisis managers should adapt to the degree of crisis risk 



13 
 

and reputational danger presented by the crisis. Evaluating the nature of crisis, the context of 

the crisis and the credibility of the previous relationship will help crisis managers assess the 

extent of the organization's reputational danger and how they can view the crisis and assign 

crisis liability to the public. Thus, SCCT can be extended to the management of a crisis in an 

organization. 

Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) focuses on maintaining and rebuilding the 

reputation of an organization that has faced a crisis, and how the public perceives the 

organization and its handling of a crisis situation (Seeger & Sellnow, 2013). The SCCT is a 

systematic method for evaluating the reputational threat of a crisis and selecting crisis 

response and post-crisis response strategies designed to maximize the reputational protection 

of the response (Coombs, 2009, p. 171). The theory was developed from attribution theory in 

its methodology and suggests that publics perceive crisis situations along with initial crisis 

responsibility, crisis history, and prior relational reputation (Coombs, 2009). The theory 

posited that, stakeholders assess crisis by two factors: crisis history, which refers to whether 

an organization has experienced a similar crisis before, and prior relational reputation, which 

is how stakeholders have perceived the organization in other cases. Coombs (1995) further 

explained that stakeholders assess the reputation threat using two steps. First, they evaluate 

the initial crisis responsibility followed by the crisis type and, second, they evaluate the 

crisis history and prior relationship reputation of the organization. 

The idea is that actors assign blame for the crisis and, thus, how it is framed. This concept is 

closely related to the root of the crisis, which relates to whether the crisis arose from an 

internal organizational problem or from an external source. The various forms of crisis 

origin have an effect on the distribution of responsibility and therefore on the available crisis 

management techniques to deploy (Jin et al, 2011). The level of liability assigned to the 

organization is critically significant, because it will decide its position in the crisis. The 



14 
 

participant in the crisis is another aspect. Depending on whether the central agent is human 

or natural, the internal or external, person or group crisis may be predicted to evolve in 

certain ways, and communication strategies may be established accordingly (Jin et al, 2011; 

Coombs et al, 2010; Cho & Gower, 2006). Research also indicates that the more burden the 

company bears during the crisis, the greater the reputational danger it would be faced with 

(Cho & Gower 2006; Coombs 2007). 

The Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) thus describes the coping techniques 

that the telecommunication companies in Ghana should use to resolve a crisis they are faced 

with during their work and also describes how stakeholders perceive them before, during and 

after a crisis. As the theory focuses on who was responsible for causing the crisis, as well as 

on the severity of the danger to the credibility of the company. This will give the 

telecommunication companies a heads up on where the problem is coming from and how it 

affects their business or the level of damage it causes their brands hence the deployment of 

solutions that best fits the problem since we now know the root cause.  

SCCT provides the roadmap or a blueprint to crisis management for the telecommunication 

industry, it does not only focus on the organization's perception of the situation, but also on 

their pre-conceived notion of how stakeholders” respond and perceive organizations. 

2.2.2 Chaos theory 

Chaos Theory introduced by Edward Lorenz during his attempt to “predict the weather in 

1960, though more often used in the math’s and science setting studies the behavior of 

dynamic systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions. This effect is frequently 

referred to as the butterfly effect. The theory holds that, minute differences in preliminary 

conditions produce widely divergent outcomes for chaotic systems, making long-term 

predictions generally impossible. This occurs even though these systems are deterministic, 



15 
 

which means that their future action is entirely dictated by their initial conditions, with no 

random elements involved.  

The chaos theory provides a view on how complex systems, such as organizations, behave 

and how crises affect them. The theory emphasizes the unpredictability and nonlinearity of 

complex organizations as well as their dynamic nature. Sensitive dependence on initial 

conditions, also known as the butterfly effect, an essential part of the chaos theory. This 

denotes a situation when a small change or nuances can heavily affect a system. This to say 

that, the outcome of a crisis is strongly hooked on its preliminary conditions. The chaos 

theory proposes that accurate predictions on the outcome of a crisis is highly unlikely, if not 

impossible, due to their chaotic and dynamic nature, (Seeger & Sellnow, 2013). 

According to the chaos theory, organizations that are complex, non-linear and dependent on 

other systems, or organizations, are more vulnerable to crises. These kinds of complex 

organizations, which are common in today’s societies, are more prone to experience 

uncertainty. Communication is seen to have two functions in the chaos theory. First, 

communication may function as a variant that causes larger changes in a system, and in some 

cases those changes can even lead to a crisis. Changes in communication process may also 

worsen the crisis outcome. Secondly, communication may function as a tool for self-

organization as well as a tool for organizational renewal. Communication can also help in 

reorganizing and restructuring as well as creating new image and reputation.  

This theory will be a needful in dealing with crisis situations in the telecommunication 

industry as it also hinges on unpredictability. In a nutshell, the theory will help organizations 

identify minute and the small changes that can cause major cracks in their organizations so 

they be better placed to deal with the initial conditions that can drastically change the long-

term behavior of both their internal and external stakeholders” towards the firm. Such initial 



16 
 

conditions might be considered experimental noise, background noise, or an inaccuracy of the 

equipment, a disaster among others. 

2.2.1 Types of Crisis 

The likelihood of crisis hitting an organization is on the increase with the rapid development 

of media related technologies. The “occurrence has plunged researchers into trying to 

categorize various dimensions of crises. Seeger in (2006) grouped crisis into three blocks as:  

natural disasters (e.g., tsunamis, earthquakes, and wild fires), industrial accidents (e.g., spills, 

explosions, and product defects), and intentional events (e.g., workplace violence, product 

tampering, and terrorist attacks). Crisis can be grouped into types such as: natural disasters, 

malevolence, technical breakdowns, human breakdowns, challenges, mega damage, 

organizational misdeeds, workplace violence, and rumors among others, Coombs (1999). 

Additionally, Coombs, (2015a) further categorized and distinguishes crisis into disasters and 

organizational crisis. According to him, disasters are big or small unforeseen occurrences 

that causes commotion and require the participation of several governmental agents and 

groups to salvage the situation.  Coombs stresses that disasters can also cause organizational 

crises while in some cases organizational crises can lead to disasters. Organizational crises 

just as any other form of crises are unpredictable and they can have the tendency to affect the 

image and performance of an organization negative negatively.  Coombs, (2015a) contends 

that a crisis is the perception of an unpredictable event and highlights that crisis is 

perceptional situation. Coombs further fleshed up his assertion by saying a crisis exists in 

organizations if only stakeholders believe the organization is in crisis. As stated earlier, 

crises are unpredictable and sudden events that hit individuals and organizations yet we can 

expect and prepare for them in waiting without knowing when it will strike and from where. 

In an attempt to broaden the types of crisis in relations to organizations, Coombs, (2015a) 

argued that there are two broad types of organizational crises: traditional crises and social 



17 
 

media crises which captures the use of new media. According to him, traditional crises 

interrupt operations of organizations and may cause harm to its stakeholders as well as 

threaten the safety and welfare of the public, whereas social media crises cause either 

reparable or irreparable damage to an organization’s reputation. Nonetheless, traditional 

crisis also has the tendency to affect an organization’s reputation while social media crises 

affect public safety. Social media crises are sometimes referred to as Para crises, meaning 

these types are not crises yet they have the opportunity to become one if poorly managed. 

(Coombs, 2015a) 

Pauchant and Mitroff (1992) also divided crises into technical, economic, human, and social 

crises. In addition, using situational crisis communication theory (SCCT), Coombs, (2009) 

categorized crises as victim crises (minimal responsibility), natural disasters, rumors, 

workplace violence, product tampering/malevolence, accident crises (low responsibility), 

challenges, technical-error accidents, technical-error product harm, preventable crises” 

(strong responsibility), human-error accidents, human-error product harm, and organizational 

misdeeds. 

This study will focus on the definition as provided by Coombs, (2009) because the 

categorization was done using situational crisis communication theory (SCCT). A theory 

which is relevant to our study. 

2.2.2 Crisis Management and Stages 

Inferring from the above types of crises, its “palpable that an understanding of the type of 

crisis faced by an individual or organization can lead to the formation of a crisis 

communication plan that will enable proper management of the crisis situation. Due to the 

heightened exposure of organizations to natural and human catastrophes, crisis 

management is an expanding area of interest. It is one of the dominant areas in public 



18 
 

relations research and a crucial organizational function. Crisis management is a tool 

designed to fight crisis, minimize the inflicted damage and protect the organization, 

stakeholders and industry from harm. Crisis management processes include preventative 

measures, crisis management plans, and post-crisis evaluations (Coombs, 2010a; Combs, 

2007b). Further, Coombs (2010) noted that the preventative measures, crisis management 

plans, and post-crisis evaluations are essential aspects of crisis management people faced 

with crisis must adopt. They are then split into pre-crisis, crisis, and post-crisis stages. 

Some scholars also hold the view that crisis management can be perceived as an 

interdisciplinary practice that uses theory and practices based on psychology and sociology 

for example. It’s obvious, crisis management does not only kick in after the crisis has 

occurred but also a management system that is concerned with strategizing on how to manage 

and act if a crisis should occur and how to move on from a crisis (Lockwood, 2005; Seeger & 

Sellnow, 2013).  

Coombs, (2015a) outlined prevention, preparation, response and revision as his four 

symbiotic elements of crisis management. Prevention refers to protective actions that aims to 

prevent the crisis from occurring. This means the picking up of signals of eminent crisis and 

taking appropriate actions to prevent them from growing into a full-fledged crisis. 

Preparation in crisis management comprises readying the organization and taking actions like 

making a crisis management plan, preparing documents and policies, creating a robust crisis 

communication structure as well as selecting a designated executive to speak for and on 

behalf of the organization. Unlike the first two elements which are internal, response is 

public. It’s an element of crisis management that the public sees or experiences hence, it’s a 

crucial aspect of the crisis communication management. Response is the end result of 

prevention and preparation and its aimed at minimizing the damage a crisis situation can 

pose. Recovery is an element of response as its concerned with restoring back to normalcy an 



19 
 

organization after a crisis situation. Just as any system, a crisis management plan needs to be 

revised. Revision is the final aspect and is essential to evaluating the effectiveness of what 

has been done. All the key actions taken during the crisis management process forms a part of 

the components of evaluation, from prevention to response and recovery. Reviewing what has 

been done can lead organizations to learn and apply crisis management best in the future 

(Coombs, 2015a).  

Many hypotheses have been developed to understand crisis. This led to some enlisted 

strategies that separate crises into phases, there are now widely-recognized and widely-used 

crisis management techniques. These strategies help crisis managers to assess and prepare 

their crisis management needs in advance (Seeger & Sellnow, 2013). For the purpose of this 

study, we use Coombs' three-stage model. Coombs, (2007a) describes three phases of crisis 

management. The first stage is considered the pre-crisis stage, the second stage is the crisis 

response stage and the third stage is the post-crisis stage. This three-stage crisis model is 

commonly used for crisis analysis as well as for crisis management (Seeger & Seeger, 

Sellnow, 2013). 

The pre-crisis stage focuses on the management of a crisis situation. This better known as the 

stage where a crisis is avoided from arising, known and perceived risks are identified and 

attempts are made to reduce those risks. A crisis management plan is being put together 

during this phase and a crisis management team is being set up. In addition, the preparation of 

spokespersons is done and pre-draft communications are prepared. The purpose of the Crisis 

Management Plan is to provide a set of instructions and a references point as  to what needs 

to be done in a crisis situation. For example, it can contain the required forms or contact 

information, who speaks to what among others. The Crisis Management team is made up of 

members from various unites of the business and sectors. The crisis management plan then 

determines the roles assigned to this team members. Coombs, (2007a) points out that both the 



20 
 

Crisis Management Strategy and the Crisis Management team should be routinely checked 

and reviewed so that they can function effectively in a time of crisis. The pre-crisis stage also 

involves instruction for members of the company about how to communicate with the media. 

Spokesperson training is much required in order for the members of the company to be able 

to address the relevant question without escalating the situation. The stage also encompasses 

the pre-drafting of messages or templating as well as the choosing of appropriate 

communication channels to use, depending on the nature of the crisis. 

 

Crisis response is the second stage of crisis management, which includes initial response and 

reputation repair and behavioral intent. The focus of this stage is on the actions taken when 

an organization is faced with a crisis, and this action includes the involvement of a strong 

public relations activity. In response to a crisis, we are advised to be quick, accurate and 

consistent throughout the process (Coombs, 2007a). It’s imperative we communicate quickly 

during crisis so, to avoid the media and others filling the void. Also, responding quickly 

creates in the minds of people an image of control, responsiveness, trustworthiness and 

responsibility. Accuracy and consistency at the initial crisis response phase go parallel. When 

an incorrect or unverified information is given, it needs to be corrected later and that can 

create an image of incompetence and inconsistency. During a crisis, it’s probable that not 

only one person will speak to the issues, hence the need to train and ready spokespersons.  An 

additional crucial thing to be considered in the initial guidelines in response to crisis concerns 

addressing the victims, (Coombs, 2007a). The victims in the scenario are the affected parties, 

they may include employees and their families, the public, consumers among others. This 

may help protect the reputation of the organization.  Offering counseling and support to the 

victims and their families is also part of crisis management during incidents where the 

injuries are serious or even deadly. Usually, crisis always affects an organization's reputation, 



21 
 

and thus reputation repair and the strategies to do that are important for crisis management.  

In some instances, reputation repair can be part of both crisis response and the post-crisis 

stage, however, in some cases it might not be needed if crisis response has been conducted 

successfully. 

The post-crisis stage, which is the third stage within the model is where the crisis is over or is 

almost over, also, reputation repair maybe part of this phase or not. The post-crisis stage 

usually involves communication with the media, employees or customers. How to keep those 

involved up-to-date about what is being done to recover from the crisis will depend on the 

type of the crisis and the type of the organization, as well as the crisis management plan and 

strategy. Usually the post-crisis stage involves communication with the media, employees or 

clients. It hinges on how to keep those involved informed up-to - date on what the 

organization is doing to recover from the crisis. What is done on the road to recovery depends 

on the organizations plan and strategy for crisis management, the type of crisis and the type 

of organization, (Coombs, 2007a). According to (Coombs, 2007a) the post-crisis stage is also 

important for the organization itself as well as for the theory of crisis management. It is 

important for the crisis manager and the crisis management team to review how the crisis was 

handled, what was done right and what could be improved. 

 

2.2.3 Relationship between crisis management and crisis communication  

Notwithstanding how crisis communication has been used as a responsive tool, for the 

purposes of this research we have also discovered literature that suggest that crisis 

communication should exist, before, during and after a crisis which encompasses the whole 

crisis management process (proactive, responsive and post- crisis evaluation) Therefore, 

crisis communication ought to be applied during all the crisis management phases. It is 



22 
 

therefore reasoned that there” is a give-and-take relationship between crisis management and 

crisis communication. 

 

2.3 Empirical Literature Review 

An empirical literature review is more commonly called a systematic literature review and it 

examines past empirical studies to answer a “particular research question. The following 

empirical studies were reviewed and categorized into themes that reflect research objectives;  

 

2.3.1 Crisis communication methods/strategies used by organizations 

Researchers, Kiambi and Shafer (2016) used a 2 to 3 inter-subject method to test two 

variables in crisis communication and reputation management good and poor corporate 

credibility and crisis response methods (apology, compassion and compensation) on an 

organization facing high crisis liability. The results from the study have it that, stakeholders 

of organizations prefer rendering apologies as to compensation strategies during crisis. 

Furthermore, results indicate that previously respectable companies have a better post-crisis 

rating than those with a recent poor image. Crisis managers facing crises that produce high 

crisis response and anger attribution are advised to focus on apology rather than 

compensation strategies. An organization with a prior good reputation will also benefit from 

highlighting its past accomplishments when faced with a crisis situation. 

A study on Crisis Communication: A case study of the Integrated Master Plan Crisis in 

Oromia regional state by Gebeyehu (2018) aimed to find out the crisis communication 

strategies of the Oromia state government. The study employed theories of crisis 

management and crisis communication in identifying best practices for leadership to adopt in 

analyzing the effectiveness of government’s response to the crisis due to the new integrated 



23 
 

master plan, a master plan for Addis Ababa city and towns on the outskirts of the city. To 

attain the results, a content analysis of 58 articles from five newspapers was conducted to 

examine how government responded to the crisis. Outcomes revealed that government’s 

response incorporated both best practices of crisis communication, as well as crisis responses 

that could be categorized as unethical. Such unethical responses included evasion of 

responsibility, attack of the accuser, minimization, and denial, while effective crisis 

communication tactics consisted of updating the public in a clear and concise manner, 

acknowledgment of mistake, and expressing sympathy and concern. 

Boudreaux (2005) conducted a study to explore the multi-stage model of crisis management: 

utilities, hurricanes, and contingency. The aim of this study was to explore the three-stage 

crisis management model and decide what impact the strongly supported-predisposing and 

situational variables on crisis management have on the contingency theory of 

accommodation. This qualitative research explores the crisis management practices of Florida 

state-owned utility companies. Participants addressed the crisis management strategies of 

their company in connection with the highly active hurricane season of 2004. An updated 

Delphi analysis was used to gather data from senior public relations practitioners and 

corporate communications practitioners from a cross section of state municipal utility 

companies. In order to identify the variables that most affected organizational crisis 

management, primary and secondary questions were created which referenced each stage of 

the three-stage crisis management model. The results reveal a connection between the 

contingency theory's strongly supported-predisposing and situational variables and the three-

stage crisis management model. 

Additionally, a study on secondary crisis communication strategies on social media 

conducted by Gongbing, Zheng, Liu and Anhui in China utilized a surrey research approach 

and deployed online questioners. The researchers aimed to increase understanding of the 



24 
 

relationships between corporate crisis response, customer secondary crisis and customer 

purchase intention. To attain, that based on an economic view, the study proposed a model to 

examine how corporate crisis response affects customer secondary crisis communication and 

finally influence purchase intention in social media context. In addition to the direct results, 

the analysis explored the moderating role of social influence in the above-mentioned ties 

based on the theory of social influence. Empirical results show that corporate crisis response 

could decrease customer secondary crisis contact, thereby reducing the negative impact in the 

social media context on consumer purchasing intention. The findings further confirm the 

moderating role of customers’ perceived social influence in the above relationships.  

With respect to the strategy of organizations feeding employees with information to 

communicate positively to boost their company’s reputation during crisis. Mazzei (2014) 

conducted a qualitative analysis of the managers, academics and experts in internal 

communication from Italian and American companies. The study explored the effects of 

internal communication strategies on employee communication behavior (managerial 

processes, techniques, skills and abilities) and how such internal communication strategies 

could be built on. Two hypotheses were used to research the reliability of the employee-

manager relationships. The study indicated that internal communication techniques help 

make employees effective communicators. Secondly; through exploration, interpretation, 

sharing and acting, their communicative actions can be realized and harnessed. To be success 

at this, the managers in charge of communication must create a conducive environment where 

employees can easily express themselves.  

Correspondingly, Ampofo-Bekoe (2014) interviewed employees from various departments in 

Tullow Oil Ghana and used the theory of media richness to discover the interaction methods 

and networks used in the company to achieve successful internal communication. Another 

aim of the study was to recognize the effect of internal communication on the effectiveness of 



25 
 

the organization as a whole. Results were that workers were pleased with the internal 

communication approach of the company and opted for the face-to - face platform over all 

the other internal communication channels their company used. Employees claimed it was 

more effective to have  face-to - face conversations because it gave them an appreciation of 

the brand image that helped them project the business externally. Employees acknowledged, 

however, that the face-to - face channels are time consuming too while the study also 

discovered one big challenge of the communication channels as the frequent breakdowns of 

the internet server. 

2.3.2 Effectiveness of crisis communication strategies 

Abdullah and Antony (2012) surveyed Malaysia's top 5-star hotel employees. The study's 

primary objective was to analyze the effectiveness of internal communication activities of the 

hotel during crisis and to determine how the components of internal communication such as 

structure, flow, material, environment and culture were effectively implemented by the hotel. 

The system theory was used, along with a model of employee relations. Findings 

demonstrated that effective internal communication is an initiating attempt during and before 

crisis to achieve organizational success and a way to achieve organizational goals. It also 

stipulated that the company had a high-performance strategic organizational communication 

framework where there was clear information flow between managerial and non-managerial 

employees; employees were aware about the organization's events and occurrences. It ended 

up stating that employees were pleased with the communication mechanisms (i.e., approach 

to bottom-up, top-down and horizontal communication) used in the by the organization and 

hence they will be better placed to defend their organization during crisis.  

An additional study by Kukule (2012) was a case study (survey and in-depth interview 

methods) that explored how inefficiency in communication can lead to organizational crisis. 

Qualitatively, eight workers (from an undisclosed company) were intentionally sampled and 



26 
 

interviewed at three separate levels of the organization. Supporting Abdullah and Antony's 

(2012) research, which found that successful internal communication contributes to a 

functioning organization; Kukule 's study found that internal communication crisis has a 

direct connection with organizational crisis. Employees also claimed that the internal 

communication problem of the company came about as a result of erratic or asymmetrical 

internal structured interaction, weak leadership, lack of principles, fragile corporate culture 

and complex grapevine. 

In a study conducted by T.M. Hocke-Mirzashvili, S. Kelly and P. MacDonald (Winter 2015) 

using open-ended, structured interviews. Twenty-five students appraised a threat from 

gunmen on campus. Themes showed that the response to crisis communication at the 

university was favorably measured by students who first received word from a university-

affiliated source. Students who received messages from sources outside the university, and 

were usually on campus, judged the response negatively. Social media played a large role as 

information source, increasing the number of voices in the crisis. The paper concludes by 

integrating the findings into CERC and other crisis models, supports the importance of 

stakeholder emotions during crisis, and discusses the threat as a form of para-crisis. 

2.3.3 Crisis communication as a part of management’s overall strategy and 

organizational policy on crisis communication 

Boz and Küçükaltan (2013) used a case-study approach to qualitatively study six major 

companies from various sectors in Turkey. The purpose of the study was to evaluate and 

compare the organizations' crisis preparedness mechanism, crisis experiences and 

characteristics. Findings show that when organizations have disaster preparedness plans, they 

're more prepared. Furthermore, organizations that had encountered a crisis before had 

stronger disaster preparedness programs as their preparedness was not based on the size of 

the workers' population. Secondly, organizations that were able to recognize possible crisis 



27 
 

risks to their company during their phases of crisis preparedness allowed them to better plan 

for future crises. This confirms Kovoor et al's assertion (2000:44) that, by proactively 

identifying the causes of possible crises, implementing protective alert system and 

continuously learning from the experiences, the organization can solve or avoid crises. 

Fowler, Kling, and Larson (2006), on the other hand, performed a comprehensive analysis of 

organizational readiness to cope with major disaster. The research was to determine 

organizations' readiness to effectively withstand a significant possible crisis or catastrophe at 

their workplace in South-West United States. One research result was that top and middle 

level managers had a higher sense of preparedness relative to their workers. Furthermore, 

businesses with an enormous workforce over 500 were best prepared for crisis. This research 

considered attitudes of all levels of workers within the organizations and not only that of just 

top-level management because, the consequences are that top-level management is likely to 

have prejudice knowledge in favor of their organization as discovered in a study conducted 

by Lando (2014) on the crucial roles of crisis communication plan in the preparedness and 

management of crises of companies. 

Selart, Johansen, and Nesse (2012) also studied how crisis management strategies regulate 

the response of employees to risk and welfare situations. The expectation was that training 

for leadership crisis would result in lower perceived risk among employees, and would also 

result in a higher degree of well-being. A survey on the health and safety of both managers 

and workers from five organizations: two private and three public was conducted. Study 

results confirmed the hypotheses tested; it was found that the understanding of danger at 

work by workers was highly dependent upon their knowledge of the preparedness of the 

organizations for crisis situations. Most notably, the study found that crisis preparedness 

contributed to well-developed planes for crisis communication and prevention. Moreover, 



28 
 

crisis preparedness has an impact that goes beyond the purpose of avoiding or handling crisis; 

it has resulted in better employee conduct, overall well-being and a more positive effect on 

perception of risk. 

In an Erica, Fry, Gibson, Chambers, and Todd (2013) study using the 2009 Salmonella 

outbreak in peanut products in the United States. The study aimed at examining crisis 

communication strategies put in place to identify which ones where successful and which 

ones failed and why.  Using a case study methodology, public relations practitioners working 

in the industry were interviewed in relation to the objectives of the research. Outcomes has it 

that a crisis communications plan is crucial for any organization. Notwithstanding, crisis are 

unique and plans must be modified and adopted to suite crisis situations. Plans should include 

a crisis management team, a list of target groups to be approached, and main messages at 

least. Additionally, media preparation for future spokespeople should be undertaken, and 

relationships should be established with media representatives” before a crisis occurs. Data 

and literature review have helped the researchers to establish a pre-crisis, crisis and post-

crisis model for agricultural communication. 

CHAPTER THREE 

METHODOLOGY 

3.0 Introduction 

This chapter deals with the research procedure used for the study. The chapter begins with a 

discussion on why the researcher adopts a qualitative approach and the exploratory research 

design as well as their appropriateness for the study. In the end, “the chapter further discusses 

the population sample for the study and the main tools for data collection: observation, 

interviews and focus group discussions.  

 



29 
 

3.1 Research Approach  

This study adopted a qualitative approach to social science research. The approach made it 

possible for the study to achieve its underlying objective of an evaluation of crisis 

communication practices in the Ghanaian telecommunication industry. As noted by Creswell 

(2015), a qualitative approach is suitable for studies that seek understanding. This approach 

was therefore relevant because it made it possible for the researcher to understand the issues 

surrounding crisis communication practices in the telecommunication industry of Ghana. 

Wimmer and Dominick (2011) define qualitative techniques as an array of interpretive 

techniques that seek to describe, decode, translate and otherwise come to terms with the 

meaning, not the frequency, of the certain more or less naturally occurring phenomenon in 

the social world. Qualitative research allows researchers to understand human phenomena 

and is useful in investigations of interpretations and meanings that respondents give to events 

they have experienced. It, therefore, helped in gaining in-depth knowledge and understanding 

of the topic being studied. 

3.2 Research Design  

For qualitative studies, several designs can be used. These include case studies, explorative 

design, and phenomenology (Neuman, 2011). The choice of a particular design, however, 

depends on a study's objectives and associated research questions. This study used the 

explorative research design, which best suited the objective of seeking to evaluate the crisis 

communication practices in the Ghanaian telecommunication industry. Creswell (2014) 

observes that explorative research design is concerned with issues that required an intensive 

examination of the setting. Considering the nature and importance of crisis communication 

and to better expunge the best practices and failure points, the explorative research design 

was appropriate. The research was exploratory because it led to the discovery of new 

knowledge and allow for the free flow of information, providing room for further inquiry into 



30 
 

the effectiveness of crisis communication in the Ghanaian Telco industry. Furthermore, the 

exploratory design can be said to be a research design that helps to satisfy the curiosity of the 

researcher and desire for proper understanding, and it also helps” to test for the possibility of 

embarking on a more extensive study as well as assisting in developing a method to be used 

in any subsequent study (Yin, 2013).  

 

3.3 Target Population  

Population in research refers to the total collection of individuals or objects about whom a 

researcher intends to make specific conclusions (Neuman, 2011). It refers to the group, 

usually with certain common characteristics, “about which a researcher would like the results 

of a study to be generalized or related to. For this study, the target population includes 

employees of some selected telecommunication companies in Ghana. The study specifically 

focuses on public relations persons or communicators who are staff of MTN Ghana, 

Vodafone Ghana and AirtelTigo as the study aims to evaluate the practices of crisis 

communication in the Ghanaian telecommunication industry. Researcher chose the above-

mentioned telecommunication companies because MTN Ghana is leading the market with 

57% subscribers while Vodafone has 21.97% and AirtelTigo who had to merge due to 

underperforms still lags behind with 20.3% of the total market share. One will ask why Glo 

with 1.75% or defunct Expresso are not a part of the researchers target population. This is 

because the researcher seeks to identify what is being done right by the market leader in 

terms of crisis communication that keeps it ahead, what the market followers are doing well 

to keep them running and controlling 21.97% and 20.3% respectively.  

(Techpoint.africa.com). Defunct Expresso did not fall under the researcher’s category 

because it’s no more in existence while Glo did not make the mark because they are new 



31 
 

entrants into the Ghanaian telco space and have not experienced major crisis as compared to 

MTN, Vodafone and AirtelTigo.   

 

3.4 Sample Size 

The sample size used in qualitative research methods is often smaller than that used in 

quantitative research methods. This is because qualitative research methods are often 

concerned with garnering an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon or are focused on 

meaning and heterogeneities in meaning which is often centered on the how and why of a 

particular issue, process, situation, subculture, scene or set of social interactions. The 

researcher will use his judgment in selecting nine (9) respondents, three from each of the 

telecommunication companies being considered for this research.  

 

3.5 Sampling technique  

The number of participants in a sample depends on the questions being asked, the data being 

gathered, and the analysis and resources available to support the study (Merriam, 2009; Yin, 

2013). Non-probability approaches such as purposive, convenience, snowball and quota 

sampling are mostly used for in-depth qualitative research in which the focal point is to 

understand a complex social phenomenon (Marshall et al., 2020). Although there are many 

sampling methods, purposeful sampling was chosen. Purposive sampling is a sampling 

method that involves selecting subjects with the required characteristics, being those that the 

researcher can get the most relevant information from (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). 

Thus, in gaining field data from the respondents, a purposive sampling technique was 

adopted.  

The respondents who are chosen from the corporate affairs, public relations and 

communications departments of the above-mentioned telecommunication companies were 



32 
 

purposively selected because specific data and information were needed by the researcher 

from the said group to help answer the research questions. They were therefore positioned to 

provide the specialized information needful for the effective conduct of the study. The 

technique is used to select suitable officials best placed to answer the research questions; thus 

those who were deemed crucial to have the information needed (Abrams, 2010; Palys, 2008). 

To seek understanding, respondents were purposively selected. The respondents were 

purposively selected because the information on the subject matter is specific and therefore 

an expert with the requisite experience is required to achieve data that is reliable. Neuman 

(2011) suggests that the purposive sampling method is used where the researcher wishes to 

select particularly informative cases, and when working with very small samples. Purposive 

sampling was chosen because the relevant data needed can only be obtained from specific 

persons directly related to the subject matter. Thus, this technique was necessary for selecting 

a handy sampling size.  

 

3.6 Sources of data  

The researcher adopted primary sources of data for the study. The primary source of data is 

the information, which is collected by a researcher himself/herself through the use of a 

questionnaire or interview guide (Leedy & Omrod, 2005). Data that is originally gathered for 

research is known as primary data. This type of data is gathered by field workers making it 

authentic. Primary data offers the finest basis of information. It enjoys a high level of 

accuracy since data obtained is coming from the population under study. The semi-structured 

interview guide will be used to gather data on crisis communication practices in the 

Telecommunication industry.  

 



33 
 

3.7 Research instrument  

Data, according to Fraenkel and Wallen (2006), is referred to as the empirical evidence that a 

researcher carefully assemble based on specific procedures or rules. The collection of data, 

however, is needed by researcher to address research problems. Tools are the instruments that 

will be used by the researcher to collect information from the target population to address the 

stated research problem. The instrument that will be used for the collection of data for this 

study is the interview guide which will be verbally administered in English. The researcher 

will use the semi-structured interview guide to elicit relevant data from public relations 

persons or communicators who are staff of MTN Ghana, Vodafone Ghana and AirtelTigo. 

These respondents will be interviewed in their various offices at their own convenient time to 

obtain the relevant data needed that can only be obtained from specific persons directly 

related to the subject matter. According to Yin (2014), the semi-structured interview makes 

use of an interview guide in a form of series of questions that are in the form of an interview 

schedule but the interviewer can vary the sequence of questions and also probe further to 

elicit relevant information.  

Requests for interview appointments will be sought and obtained from target respondents 

through oral communication indicating the purpose, nature, content, and duration of 

interviews as well as an assurance of confidentiality and anonymity. The target respondents 

will also be made aware of the researcher's intention to record the interviews and quotes 

when necessary. Interview guides will be designed for in-depth interviews with all 

respondents. Probing techniques will also be used to gain further clarification and to induce 

respondents to expand, explain their answers and focus on the specific content of the 

interview. All of the interviews for this study will be tape-recorded. Tape-recording is 

deemed useful to enable the interviewer to keep eye contact with the interviewees, assist 

accurate note-taking and to check the wording of any statement made that needed to be 



34 
 

quoted during analysis. Creswell (2014) To ensure that the study instrument is valid and 

reliable, as the quality of research largely depends on the quality of the instruments used and 

procedures of collecting the data since the two essentials of good research are validity and 

reliability, the researcher will ensure that the questions designed are based on the following 

guidelines: 

 The questions will be formed in such a way as to make it easy for respondents to 

understand them.  

 The questions will be few as necessary to produce the information required. 

 The questions will require answers that are very straight forward and precise. 

 The questions will be directly related to the information required.  

 The questions will be such that they could be answered honestly and without bias. 

 

3.8 Data analysis  

The interviews in this study will be recorded with a digital voice recorder. Also, the 

researcher will keep a research journal in which other field notes and informal chats are to be 

written. After data collection, all the audio data will be transcribed into text and subsequently 

edited to detect and eliminate typographical errors. The researcher will then read the data 

over and over again to familiarize and to have an idea of what the data contained as 

recommended by (Kothari & Garg, 2019). The thematic analysis approach will be employed 

to generate meaning from raw data. This will be done by first identifying important themes 

and patterns in text data through careful examination and constant comparison. After 

identifying the themes emerging from the data, they will then be grouped under the main 

objectives of the study; thus, to make an empirical inquiry into the subject matter. The 

researcher will then discuss the findings by relating them to the literature reviewed to either 



35 
 

validate or invalidate the major arguments. Specific quotes from respondents cited were 

relevant to buttress the generated themes. 

 

3.9 Ethical considerations  

This study will be concerned with ethical issues considered in the telecommunication 

industry, therefore certain ethical principles are to be observed to protect the interest of the 

organization and individual respondents. Before the commencement of interviews, 

respondents will be assured that the use of information provided was for academic purposes” 

only. To also ensure the anonymity of respondents, they will not be made to disclose their 

identity. The researcher will also ensure that the information provided is kept in confidence 

for this study only.  

 

  



36 
 

CHAPTER FOUR 

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

4.0 Introduction 

This is the concluding chapter of the study and it gives a summary of all that the study is 

about as well as the recommendations. “Based on the outcome of the study, the researcher 

concluded and made recommendations that will be of benefit to the telecommunication 

industry in Ghana. Furthermore, the researchers identified the limitations of the study to 

guide future studies on the subject matter. 

 

4.1 Summary 

An incident or occurrence that affects an organization's regular operation and, if badly 

handled, can kill a good corporate reputation in just a few days, even clear the company off 

the face of the earth I will term as a crisis situation. Crisis may first appear to be one that 

cannot trigger the extinguishing of an organization over a period of time can jeopardize its 

operation and existence hence the need for strategy and planning.  

It should be noted that no two crisis situations are alike or similar and that all crisis situations 

differ and needs different approaches in managing them hence, it’s unreasonable to develop a 

one-fit-all solution for all organizations and the crisis that hit them. The telecommunication 

industry must be in the known that no organization in this day and time immune to crisis 

situations. This means they need to create or generate the capacity to stomach and 

successfully manage crisis situations. In this vain, crisis communication management has 

become a crucial part of organizations strategy irrespective of how big, small, successful, 

powerful or respectful an organization is. In today’s practice of the corporate governance 

process, it is impossible to find an organization that has not in any way met a crisis situation 



37 
 

of any kind. Due to the recent happenings, corporate management is also required to 

participate more in crisis communication and management procedures, accurately because of 

the more regular and unpredictable nature of different crises.  

 

4.2 Contribution to literature 

This study will contribute to a deeper understanding and emphasis on the importance of 

internal crisis communication preparedness to organizations and open up further scholarly 

investigation on the subject within Africa (since most studies done have considered the 

western context). In addition, the findings of this study will help the study organizations to 

build strong internal strategies for crisis communication management in order to better 

manage future crises from escalating. Findings of this study will also encourage the study 

organizations to make crisis information easily accessible to all employees so that they can 

easily relate it to the organizational culture and perform productively towards their 

organizational goals. It will also highlight the importance of management-employee crisis 

communication preparedness before considering the external crisis communication. 

Organizations in the sector can also apply the recommendations that stem from this study to 

improve their crisis resiliency. 

 

4.3 Limitations 

In undertaking the research, the researcher was confronted with some challenges such as 

finance, time, and adequate research information as well as access to sample size to collect 

data due to the outbreath of the Covid-19 pandemic. The research due to the happenings was 

limited to only literature available on the topic since primary data was not collected from the 



38 
 

stated sample size due to the pandemic. Researcher suggests” others to go on the field and 

gather data, process it and come up findings based on primary data gathered. 

 

 4.4 General Recommendation 

The researcher after reviewing literature and reading articles in relations to the topic under 

study recommends that crisis communication should be planned, well managed and tactfully 

executed. Also, all organizations are to follow through and use the appropriate strategies that 

will work or best fit a particular crisis situation as a one-fit-for all or an on the shelve solution 

may fail due to the unique nature of all crisis situations. Additionally, organizations who are 

players within the telecommunication space should have crisis communication plans as a part 

of managements overall strategy and it should trickle from the board level to the least of 

employees on the hierarchy as the collaboration of all internal stakeholders will help the 

organization thrive and survive a crisis whiles disorganization in purpose will hurt the 

organization. 

 

4.5 Recommendation for further studies  

The research was a qualitative study and further studies should look at conducting a mix 

method to also take into account the feedback on the effectiveness of the strategies from the 

consumers’ point of view. Also, other researches can focus on other sectors of the economy 

that are deemed crucial to growth and carry out a research to also expunge best strategies in 

handling and managing crisis going forwards.   

  



39 
 

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