Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

Non-Governmental Organizations and Development Service Provision: A Conceptual and 
Empirical Review 

Daniel Odoom  Joseph Obeng-Baah   Lawrencia Agyepong  
 

Abstract 
 

Globally, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are seen as a significant driving force behind 
delivering development services. There is universal consensus within the development 
community that development service delivery will be incomplete without the involvement of 
NGOs. Thus, many NGOs across the globe complement governments' efforts in development 
service delivery, a situation that has occasioned a rapid rise in both the volume and scale of 
operations of NGOs. Nonetheless, there is a growing debate regarding the conceptual intentions 
of NGOs. While some scholars believe that NGOs effectively provide development services, 
others have suggested that development service delivery does not constitute a critical component 
of NGOs' agenda. There is also the issue of whether or not the approaches NGOs employ in 
development services are participatory enough. While some scholars opine that participatory 
development communication approaches characterize NGOs' development services, others 
maintain that participation is merely rhetoric value within the NGO sector. These contending 
views risk an obliteration of the continuing relevance of NGOs in development discourse. This 
paper seeks to contribute to the debate on the place of NGOs in development services and the 
approaches NGOs employ in contemporary development practice. The authors posit that NGOs 
occupy a central place in development service provision but concede that NGO operations in 
development services are not without challenges. The authors argue further tha
development services can better be appreciated based on a thorough understanding of the role of 
participatory development communication in development service provisions. The paper presents 
a review of the relevant conceptual and empirical literature on NGOs' activities in development 
services and concludes by identifying lessons that should engage the attention of key 
stakeholders. 

Keywords: Development, NGO interventions, Participatory Development Communication, 
Service Provision, Programs 

Introduction 

Development is about bringing quality changes in the lives of the citizenry. Its outcomes go 

beyond growth in the traditional economic sense to include all other human well-being aspects 

(Sen, 2012; Todaro & Smith, 2006). Nations across the globe strive to put in place measures to 

bring about quality changes in the lives of their citizens. However, it is widely acknowledged 

that in many developing nations, the state cannot independently provide essential social goods 

and services that would ensure a progressive poverty reduction and guarantee sustainable 

 Ghana Institute of Journalism, Accra, Ghana. Email: ankahodoom@gmail.com 
 Ghana Institute of Journalism, Accra, Ghana 
 Ghana Institute of Journalism, Accra, Ghana 

mailto:ankahodoom@gmail.com


PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

development (Okorley & Nkrumah, 2012). When the state cannot provide sufficient goods and 

services or the enabling environment to improve the lives of its citizens, alternative channels of 

service provision become critical. NGO interventions have constituted one such form of 

alternative development strategies since the 1980s (Banks & Hulme, 2012; Brass, 2010; Odoom, 

Yeboah, Opoku & Osei-Wusu, 2018; Odoom, 2021). In this context, the alternative development 

theory solidifies the apparent relevance of NGOs as frontline agents of development (Odoom, 

2021). 

NGO activities and services have a long history dating back into the late 1940s, just after World 

War II (Desai, 2002b; Winter, 2001). NGOs came into the development scene when civil society 

organizations became increasingly convinced about what they could do to alleviate the suffering 

of the many people and nations affected by the war. Indeed, World War II left many people in a 

state of hopelessness, starvation, and destitution globally, with many countries also experiencing 

a severe economic slowdown as a result of the war. Thus, NGOs around this period had 

humanitarianism, welfare, and relief service as their central motivation in development service 

delivery. However, NGOs' activities have outgrown welfare, relief, and humanitarianism over 

the past few decades (Desai, 2002b, Francis, 2002; Long, 2001; Nelson, 2002). NGOs now 

provide several services in almost all sectors of society beyond relief and humanitarian 

considerations due to the increasing recognition of the inability of governments to single-

handedly improve the socio-economic conditions of people. 

NGOs have and continue to play a vital role in delivering development services. The benevolent 

role of NGOs for the past three decades served as a means to bridge the gap between the poor 

and the rich. Consequently, NGOs are generally praised for their strengths as innovative 

grassroots-driven agents for social change (Banks & Hulme, 2012). NGOs are seen to have the 

willingness and capacity to pursue participatory and people-centered forms of development and 

to fill gaps left by states, especially across the developing world, in addressing the myriad of 

needs of their poorest populations (Banks & Hulme, 2012; Barr, Fafchamps & Trudy, 2005; 

Odoom, 2021).  

Even though global figures are uneasy about coming by owing mainly to the absence of 

coordinating bodies, Epstein and Gang (2006) observed that, for all Development Assistance 



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

Countries, official development assistance (ODA) to NGOs rose from US$928 million to 

US$1246 million between 1991 and 2002. This figure indicates about 34 percent rise in 

development assistance to NGOs within this period. Similarly, around this period, international 

NGOs grew by 19.3 percent. Additionally, there has been a corresponding expansion both in size 

and the development of thematic areas of NGOs, thus, affirming a growing interest and centrality 

of NGOs within the alternative development partner coincided with neoliberal tenets (Barr et al., 

2005; Edwards & Hulme, 1996; Odoom, 2021). In essence, there has been an overwhelming rise 

in the number of NGOs in the face of the various development challenges manifesting across the 

globe.  

Several factors have contributed to the rising interest in the activities of NGOs around the world. 

For example, continued donor distrust and frustrations with states fuelled an interest in NGOs as 

viable and even desirable alternatives. Many people viewed NGOs favorably for their inclusive 

representation of beneficiaries and their role as innovators of new technologies and participative 

approaches to working with the poor (Barr et al., 2005; Lewis, 2005; Murray and Overton, 

2011). Africa witnessed its NGO boom starting in the 1990s (Hearn, 2007). For example, Kenya 

experienced a rapid increase in the number of registered NGOs from 400 in 1990 to over 6,000 

in 2008 (Brass, 2011). Similarly, in Tanzania, the 41 registered NGOs in 1990 had increased to 

over 10,000 by 2000 (Hearn, 2007). In places such as Uganda, the public reaction to the NGO 

phenomenon has been characterized by mixed feelings, including a widespread suspicion that 

beneath the provision of the public good lie other ulterior motivations (Barr et al., 2005). 

However, NGOs provide a much-needed helping hand in development services in Ghana, 

Nigeria, and Zimbabwe (Adjei, Agyemang & Afriyie, 2012; Chitongo; 2013; Enyioko, 2012). It 

indicates that NGOs have played a critical role in the development of communities over the years 

(Adjei et al., 2012; Banks & Hulme, 2012; Brass, 2010; Chitongo; 2013; Enyioko, 2012; 

Omofonmwan & Odia, 2009).  

The exertion of political influence has been suggested as a strong underlying motivation of 

NGOs' presence in Africa, mainly driven by a desire to join dominant political patronage 

networks (Brass, 2012). However, the good governance agenda, which embraces the language of 

democracy, human rights, and public participation (Murray & Overton, 2011), consolidates 

NGOs' centrality to national development (Odoom, 2021) in the Global South. As a result, the 

architecture of aid has evolved beyond growth-focused neoliberalist experiments to a more 



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

meaningful consultation between donors and recipients and increased focus on poverty and the 

responsibility of nation-states from the onset of the new millennium starting in 2000 (Barr et al., 

2005; Murray & Overton, 2011). This paper contributes to the debate around the contribution of 

NGOs in development service provision through a review of selected literature. The rest of the 

paper is written in four parts, with the first part focusing on the concept and typology of NGOs. 

The second part looks at the role of NGOs in contemporary development service provision, 

while the third part considers the empirical review. The final part concludes the paper based on 

the emergent issues in the review.  

Conceptual Review 

The Concept and Typology of NGOs 

NGOs have come to be accepted as significant actors in the development landscape. NGOs are 

noted for delivering essential services to people in need and undertaking advocacy and public 

campaigns for positive social change. Their activities also focus on community improvement, 

poverty alleviation, capacity building, and community empowerment. NGOs also offer more 

specialized services, including governance and democracy, human rights, emergency response, 

cultural preservation, conflict resolution, environmental activism, policy analysis, research, and 

information provision (Lane, 1995; Lewis & Kanji, 2009).

be felt almost everywhere in the developing world, the challenge 

of understanding the phenomenon remains a startlingly difficult one. It can be attributable to 

NGOs' being an extremely diverse group of development actors. NGOs undertake different 

functions and take different shapes and forms within and across different countries and contexts. 

Another explanation for the nebulousness of the phenomenon is that 'NGO' as an analytical 

grouping is complex, often unclear, and difficult to grasp. Although NGOs are regarded in the 

literature as independent organizations without the control and influence of government or driven 

by the profit motive, some NGOs are regular recipients of huge funding from government 

sources. Some NGOs bear striking semblances of highly professionalized private entities also 

carrying a strong corporate identity (Lewis & Kanji, 2009). 



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

The term NGO is widely used to encapsulate a number of organizations. The term is often used 

interchangeably with other names such as not-for-profit, voluntary, and civil society 

organizations. Sometimes, these terms reflect the different kinds of NGOs in operation within a 

given context (Lewis & Kanji, 2009; Moyo, 2000). Also, using these terms is a consequence of 

different cultures and histories through which NGOs emerged. For instance, in places such as the 

tradition of volunteering and voluntary work attributed to Christian values and the development 

of charity law. A -

due to the increasing recognition of the market economy. The usage of the term in the United 

States is also due to appreciation for the non-commercial and non-profit-making motives of the 

operations of NGOs (Lewis & Kanji, 2009).  

relief organizations to service provision. For example, Christian Aid, CARE International, Save 

the Children, environmental conservations groups such as Friends of the Earth, wildlife 

conservation groups, and self-help groups such as funeral associations, welfare organizations, 

(Lane, 1995; Mawdsley, Townsend, Porter & Oakley, 2002; Moyo, 2000). The structure, 

funding, and value sets also contribute to this mass classification of divergent organizations as 

NGOs. NGOs may be large or small, formal or informal, bureaucratic or flexible based on their 

structure. Concerning funding, some NGOs are externally funded, while others depend on locally 

mobilized resources. Some NGOs may be well resourced and command extensive network 

capabilities, while others may be poorly resourced. Some NGOs have the resources to engage the 

services of highly experienced professionals, while others necessarily have to rely on the 

goodwill of unpaid volunteers and supporters. From the perspective of the value, NGOs are 

driven by a range of motivations which may be secular or faith-based (Lewis & Kanji, 2009). 

The influence of NGOs can be traced back to the late 1940s, immediately after the Second World 

War (Desai, 2002b; Winter, 2001). The evolution of NGOs came when some civil society 

organizations (CSOs) saw that they could alleviate the suffering of those affected by the war in 

Europe and other parts of the world and assist countries experiencing an economic slowdown as 

a result of the war. Scholars such as Long (2001), Desai (2002b), Francis (2002), and Nelson 

(2002) have argued that the activities of NGOs have grown beyond just welfare provisioning, 



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

especially since the late 1980s and early 1990s. In the developing world, areas where 

government resources cannot reach due to inadequate revenue and donor support is not 

forthcoming, assistance from NGOs has been extremely crucial. 

NGOs are typically self-governing or voluntary development organizations that focus on 

improving the lives of poor and vulnerable people or organizations not benefiting directly from 

government development initiatives (Desai, 2002a; Long, 2002; Vakil, 1997). Their agenda is 

based on the philosophical orientations that underpin the organization's establishment. In some 

cases, they work on behalf of a government, even though not operate directly under the control 

of any government department. In some instances, too, they become de facto providers of 

essential public goods that governments are either unable or unwilling to provide. Long (2002) 

identified some of the activities of NGOs, which include service delivery to poor individuals or 

communities, empowerment support work such as capacity building, technical assistance and 

funding to communities, advocating for the voiceless and the marginalized, and women's rights.   

In some countries, some NGOs are working on behalf of governments in certain development 

service delivery areas, while others may choose to distance themselves from the state by 

implementing projects and activities that run parallel to similar interventions by the state (Clark, 

2002; Desai, 2002b; Nelson, 2002; Thomas & Allen, 2000). However, some critics (Desai, 

2002b; Francis, 2002) have argued that although NGOs are recognized as effective vehicles for 

delivering public services, the operations of some of the risk further social and political 

marginalization of beneficiary communities when such activities are deemed to be antithetical to 

perception of NGOs is one of voluntary humanitarianism. Through this altruistic lens, NGOs are 

seen as indispensable non-state actors whose aim is to provide services to improve the conditions 

of vulnerable and disadvantaged groups or individuals in society.   

Despite their contributions to development services, NGOs are not without challenges and 

misgivings. NGOs are often accused of getting involved in national politics to the detriment of 

their missions. It is widely contended that Local influential persons mainly lead NGOs with 

political connections, which often impedes their ability to implement adequate democratic 

management and decision-making structures (Andreasen, 2001). A clear case in point is what 



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

existed in Egypt a few years ago, where most NGOs were accused of elitism because they were 

founded by professionals and the educated elite (Myllyla, 2001).  

Again, scholars including Korten (1990) and Turner and Hulme (1997) described NGOs' 

approach to promoting empowerment at the local level as a political activity. The authors further 

downplayed the situation where NGOs claim they are non-political when they explicitly promote 

empowerment at the grassroots level, which unavoidably makes them political entities. Besides, 

Barr, Fafchamps, and Owens (2003) opine that NGOs are not entities whose operations can be 

welcome in the realm of perfection. Barr et al. (2003) strengthen this position by submitting that 

some NGOs are opportunistic and remote organizations, contributing very little to development 

 

development services in places such as Uganda leaves much to be desired.   

Forming typologies of NGOs 

Several views have been expressed by scholars, researchers, and organizations regarding the 

various ways of developing a typology of NGOs. For instance, Lane (1995) considered the types 

of NGOs from four main angles. They are welfare and relief, modernization, community 

development, and institution building NGOs. Relief and welfare NGOs channel their efforts to 

assist people affected by complex humanitarian emergencies such as drought, earthquakes, 

floods, and other natural disasters and conflicts. The remaining three categories have been 

categorized under the term "Development NGOs". These NGOs mainly help promote and 

improve people's lives through community and institutional development practices and 

empowerment and capacity-building programs that enable people to fulfill their development 

aspirations and attain sustainable livelihoods. One such NGO in Ghana, for example, is World 

Vision International (Lane, 1995). 

In the opinion of Cousins (1991), NGOs can be classified into two main categories based on their 

orientation and level of operation. In terms of orientation, Cousins (1991) considered NGO types 

based on the kind of activities they undertake. The activities may include human rights, 

shows the scale at which it works. Some operate at the local, regional, national or international 

level or a combination of these levels (Vakil, 1997). Also, based on the level of operation, 



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

Cousins (1991) identified the following categories: community-based, city-wide, national and 

 

Furthermore, based on orientation, Cousins (1991) also identified four types of NGOs: 

charitable, service, participatory, and empowering. Charitable NGOs' activities are directed 

towards addressing the needs of the poor. They primarily involve distributing food, clothing, or 

medicine, provision of housing, transport, and schools. Second, NGOs engage in service 

orientation focused on the provisions of health, family planning, or education services. Third, 

participatory NGOs are classified based on the self-help projects they provide to local 

communities where people are actively involved in planning and implementing projects 

(Cousins, 1991). The local people participate in the form of contributing cash, tools, land, 

materials, and labor. Finally, empowering NGOs to seek to help poor people better understand 

the social, political, and economic factors affecting their lives and reinforce their awareness of 

their capacity to control their lives (Dugle, Akanbang & Salakpi, 2015). 

In an effort to reinforce the debate on typologies of NGOs, Willetts (2002) agrees with Cousins 

(1991) on the classification of operational NGOs. Willetts further explained operational NGOs as 

organizations that seek to promote small-scale change mainly through projects. Unlike Cousins 

(1991), Willetts (2002) believed that there are also advocacy NGOs that aim to achieve large-

categorization, it can be said that operational NGOs implement projects while advocacy NGOs 

are concerned with holding demonstrations or campaigns to defend or promote a specific cause. 

In support of Willetts (2002), Mostashari (2005) argued that the difference between operational 

and advocacy NGOs lies between small-scale change achieved directly through projects and 

large-scale change promoted indirectly through political systems and campaigns.  

Other scholars have also categorized NGOs based on several factors and positions. For example, 

as cited in Paul Dugle et al. (2015), Farrington and Lewis have characterized NGOs based on 

factors such as autonomy, location, and scope of activities. Thus, the degree of autonomy, 

location, and scope of activities of NGOs are crucial in the determination of NGO categorization. 

Others have also classified NGOs based on their aims and functions, as in welfare NGOs, 

development NGOs, service NGOs, environmental NGOs, advocacy NGOs, human rights 



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

status, NGOs have been put into four categories: unincorporated and voluntary association; 

trusts, charities and foundations; not-for-profit companies; and entities registered under special 

NGOs (Dugle et al., 2015; Stillman, 2007). 

There are also international and local NGOs. The term "International Non-Governmental 

multilateral, or private-sector donors (Gyamfi, 2010; Helen, Cunt & Sujata, 2005; Lewis & 

Kanji, 2009). Chuku, as cited in Gyamfi (2010), defines International NGOs as NGOs whose 

policies and systems are managed and controlled from their various headquarters, often outside 

the country of operation. International NGOs are also sometimes referred to as Northern NGOs. 

The term "Local Non-Governmental Organization (LNGO)" refers to local indigenous 

organizations, including national NGOs, Faith-Based Organizations (FBOs), and Community-

Based Organizations (CBOs). These indigenous organizations provide interventions and 

activities often within the functional categories of advocacy and service delivery (Helen et al., 

2005).  

Local NGOs are owned, managed, and controlled by the nationals. They are formed based on the 

initiatives of the local people rather than outside forces or donors. They are formed in response 

to the myriad of development challenges confronting their country (Turary, 2002). Their primary 

desire is to identify local needs or concerns and fashion out local solutions to them. They are 

non-profit making, not affiliated to political parties, and generally concern themselves with 

working to ensure the development and welfare of communities in their operational zones (Lewis 

& Kanji, 2009; Turary, 2002).  

It is believed that a reasonable number of NGOs do not have clear development objectives. It 

raises doubts about their motivations and capacity in working to address the plights of the people 

they claim to serve (Kamat, 2002; Mayo, 2000). Table 1 presents some of the categorizations of 

NGOs by Hudock (1999) and Moyo (2000). Variations in community needs and diversity in 

he paradoxes of NGOs operating in the world 

today (Dugle et al., 2015; Turary, 2002). Despite these challenges and the complexity of 

community needs and priorities, NGOs have and continue to demonstrate the ability to meet the 

development needs of populations worldwide. In many instances, NGOs work assiduously to fill 



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

the gaps created by governments' inability to deliver development services, especially to the 

disadvantaged persons in society (Brass, 2011).  

Unlike Helen et al. (2005), Mayo (2000) and Hudock (1999) distinguish CBOs from southern 

NGOs. While southern NGOs operate at the national and regional levels, CBOs operate at the 

grassroots and village levels (Hudock, 1999; Mayo, 2000). Other NGOs focus on rural 

community development. The preoccupation of these NGOs is promoting the development of 

rural communities (Ellis, 2000). Other features that inform NGOs' categorization are cost-

effectiveness, adaptability to the local environment, innovativeness, and an understanding of the 

local situation. As a result, government departments and international development institutions 

often collaborate with NGOs by providing them the resources to deliver development initiatives 

on their behalf (Desai, 2002b; Thomas & Allen, 2000). This form of trust strengthens the 

synergy between northern NGOs and southern or community-based NGOs in the execution of 

development programs and interventions. 

Table 1: Typology of NGOs and their areas of operations 

Type of NGO Origin and area of operation 

Northern Mostly from the developed countries; render most of their services in the 
developing world. 

Southern These are NGOs that originate from developing countries. They are often 
formed through local initiatives, and their operations are at the regional and 
national levels. They may operate at the grassroots/village level and collaborate 
with donor nations and northern NGOs to provide interventions. 

Community-
based/Indigenous
/Grassroots  

They are often promoted by government agencies, faith institutions, or 
community mobilization groups. They operate at the grassroots and mainly at 
the village level. 

Sources: Hudock (1999), Moyo (2000) 

NGOs constitute an important vehicle through which development intervention policies are 

implemented at the grassroots level (Farrington et al., 1993). The over-reliance of some 

governments on NGOs to spend money on their behalf gives such NGOs influence on 

government policy formulation and implementation. The flexible nature of the policies and 



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

programs of NGOs their ability to work directly with the rural poor and within rural and risky 

conditions make them preferable to government agencies (Lane, 1995; Long, 2001). However, 

critics have suggested that NGOs are just gap-filling organizations (Desai, 2002b; Thomas & 

Allen, 2000) that sometimes operate using non-conventional policies. They often operate in areas 

where most government departments find it difficult to operate. NGOs would not offer a quick 

answer to a scale of global poverty or even alleviate it satisfactorily to ensure relative social 

stability (Pearce, 2000; 2001).  

Characteristics of NGOs are also examined from service provision, intermediary, advocacy, and 

relief perspectives and their corresponding primary activities (Hudock, 1999; Mayo, 2000), as 

shown in Table 2. In their conclusion, Thomas and Allen (2000) posit that despite the hype about 

the work of NGOs towards the improvement of the lives of the rural poor and the neglected and 

marginalized, NGOs can never change the world.  

Table 2: Characteristics of NGOs and their performance 

Characteristic of NGOs Activities 

Service Providers They provide training services, capacity building, consultancy, 

research, etc., at the community level; engage in service delivery for 

the needy, such as refugees, flood victims, etc. 

Intermediary They liaise with funding agencies and assist grassroots organizations 

in securing funds and other assistance for development activities. 

Advocacy They advocate for the underprivileged, disadvantaged, widows, street 

children, etc. 

Relief They provide relief supplies to communities or countries affected by 

floods, earthquakes, famine, disease outbreaks, etc. They also offer 

technical assistance on fundraising strategies, proposal writing, etc., 

to local organizations to make them self-reliant. 

Source: Hudock (1999), Moyo (2000) 

This conclusion raises questions on the views many people have about the activities and impacts 

of NGOs as development partners. 



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

The Role of NGOs in Contemporary Development Service Provision: Key Issues and 
Approaches 
NGOs currently play diverse roles within the global contemporary development community. 

NGOs' roles in the current development framework have been grouped mainly into service 

delivery, catalysis, and partnership (Lewis & Kanji, 2009). These three leading roles inform the 

approaches NGOs employ in undertaking development services. Although these roles are 

distinct, one particular NGO can engage in thematic areas and activities that cut across these 

individual dichotomies. A clear case is that an NGO may carry out service delivery to build trust 

in a local community, which will, in turn, create a platform for community advocacy or 

campaign. Also, an NGO may form a partnership with a corporation to advance its aims of 

campaigning for ethical and socially responsible business (Lewis & Kanji, 2009). Service 

delivery by NGOs, especially in developing countries, is important because many people face a 

wide range of development services coupled with essential basic services being unavailable or of 

poor quality (Carroll, 1992; Lewis & Kanji, 2009).  

NGO service provision has seen a speedy growth due to the decreasing role of governments as 

direct service providers within the neoliberal agenda (Lewis & Kanji, 2009). The incentive for an 

NGO to actively provide services varies. For instance, sometimes, NGOs provide services to 

meet previously unmet needs, while in other instances, they are contracted by state agencies or 

donors to undertake the delivery of services that hitherto had been the direct responsibility of the 

government. Indeed, not all NGOs are directly providing services to local communities. For 

example, some NGOs aim to tackle poverty indirectly by providing other forms of services such 

as building the technical capacity of other NGOs, government agencies, or the private sector or 

carrying out commissioned action research (Lewis & Kanji, 2009).  

Some donors have argued for a more substantial role for NGOs in service delivery work because 

they are believed to possess a set of distinctive organizational capacities and comparative 

advantages, such as flexibility, commitment, and cost-effectiveness. However, in practice, the 

diversity in the NGOs community means that such generalizations are often difficult to sustain 

(Zakaria, 2011). While some NGOs have proven to be effective service providers (Chitongo, 

2013; Enyioko, 2012; Odoom, 2021) in specific sectors and contexts, others have been found 



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

wanting in their performance. NGO service provision is often associated with problems of 

quality control, low sustainability, poor coordination, etc. (Robinson & White, 1997). Increasing 

the role of NGOs in development services also raises several concerns ranging from the quality 

of services and the impact of their interventions on beneficiaries (Lewis, 2005; Lewis & Kanji,  

2009). 

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, conservative governments in the United States, Britain, and 

many other countries afterward reduced the role of government in direct service provision along 

with the privatization of the public sector (Hulme & Edwards, 1997). It has not only led to 

ethical benefits but also financial gains. Since NGOs promote and rely significantly on 

volunteerism, their approaches can be more cost-effective than the approaches used by the 

government. Increased government funding channeled through NGOs for the last two decades 

may not be the only explanation for exponential growth in the number of NGOs, but it has 

undoubtedly contributed to such manifestation, especially in the advanced economies. The 

Global Water Initiative (GWI), for example, is an NGO that seeks to support the sustainable and 

equitable delivery of potable water to vulnerable rural communities in the Upper West Region in 

Ghana. They have invested heavily in Ghana in collaboration with other foundations and NGOs 

in the country in the area of water and sanitation (Hulme & Edwards, 1997; Sarfo, 2013).  

Another area of significant NGO commitment in Ghana is economic empowerment through 

microfinance initiatives. NGOs are non-formal providers of microcredit loans to address poverty 

and hunger (Adjei & Arun, 2009). Sinapi Aba Trust (SAT), for example, is one of the most 

prominent NGOs providing such microfinance services in Ghana by giving opportunities for 

enterprise development and income generation to economically disadvantaged groups in the 

country. Services offered by SAT include loans, savings deposits, client welfare (insurance) 

schemes, and non-financial services, including entrepreneurial skills, with women constituting 

ase. However, these services do not always reach 

the target people in society (Adjei & Arun, 2009; Egyir, 2013; Sono, 2013). Besides, through its 

economic development and agricultural interventions, WVG improves people's livelihoods 

through access to credit, markets, technology, and information. The Organization also provides 

people with microcredit training and skill development (Egyir, 2013; WVG, 2017).  



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

An important factor in NGOs' service delivery role is participation. While scholars (Bessette, 

2000; Cousins, 1991) believe that NGOs generally adopt participatory approaches in delivering 

their development services, Streeten (1997) and Dempsey (2009) maintain that participation does 

rticipation is, at best, 

a slogan and not a thought-out strategy within the NGO sector. Dempsey (2009) argues that no 

actual democratic value such as participation manifests within the NGO sector. As cited in 

Odoom et al. (2018), Lugar extends the discussion by submitting that some 

generally limit the participation of community members during the delivery of development 

services. Such NGOs only talk about participation in terms of informing community members to 

provide cheap manual labor to support the delivery of development services (Lugar, cited in 

Odoom et al., 2018). Behera (2006) states that the rhetoric of participation in the NGO sector is 

because of the influences from the international headquarters of NGOs and other organizations. 

In essence, though service delivery is generally critical on the agenda of NGOs, there are 

concerns regarding the nature of participatory approaches that inform the delivery of 

development services. According to Bessette (2000), NGOs are better placed to use participatory 

approaches in undertaking their development services. A critical element of meaningful 

participation is participatory communication, which is at the heart of effective development 

communication. Bessette (2000) argues that participatory communication should be embedded in 

NGO operations. Bessette (2000) adds that participatory communication is a viable 

communication strategy NGOs need to rely on in their development services. Bessette (2000), 

therefore, calls for the need to support NGOs to pursue and reinforce participatory development 

practices within the local communities they operate in. Bessette (2000) further explains the 

importance of participatory communication by arguing that training should be organized for 

NGO workers in participatory development communication to prepare NGOs to develop and 

implement participatory approaches appropriately during the delivery of development services. 

Servaes, as cited by Odoom et al. (2021), argues that development communication practice is 

only effective when it considers the interests, needs, and capacities of all stakeholders concerned. 

In effect, NGOs can complement awareness creation, advocacy, and behavior change 

communication which they commonly use when undertaking development services with 



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

participatory communication, scholarly communication, and social mobilization strategies to 

achieve their set goals (Dzisah, 2019; Odoom, 2021). 

NGOs' second key role in development practice is serving as a catalyst. A catalyst is an agent 

that causes change. From the agent standpoint, NGOs aim to bring about change through 

advocacy and seeking influence and innovative ways to find new solutions to development 

problems (Lewis & Kanji, 2009). As cited in Lewis and Kanji (2009), Jenkins defines advocacy 

as any attempt that seeks to influence the decisions of any institutional elite in the collective 

interest of society. Lindenberg and Bryant (2001) assert that advocacy work involves going 

beyond implementing programs to help those in need to take up and defend the causes of others 

communication approach to target leadership and the powers that be to take actions to support 

program objectives. Leadership includes political, business, and social leaders at national and 

local levels. NGOs seek to inform and motivate leaders through advocacy communication to 

create a supportive environment for their programs (Mostashari, 2005; Willetts, 2002). Effective 

advocacy communication requires changing policies, allocating resources, speaking out on 

critical issues, and initiating public discussion (Odoom, 2020; Servaes, 2000). Lindenberg and 

Bryant explained further that in the performance of duties by NGOs, advocacy focuses on clearly 

speaking up for policy change and action that will address the core causes of development and 

relief problems confronting society.  

policymaking in innovative ways to support development objectives (Najam, 1999). Najam 

conceptualizes the policy process as one involving agenda setting, policy development, and 

policy implementation. Agenda setting occurs when the issues and priorities for action are agreed 

upon by stakeholders, whereas policy development concerns the choices among possible 

alternatives and the options that are made. Finally, at the level of policy implementation, specific 

actions are undertaken to translate policies into practice. Najam believes that NGOs are adept at 

influencing decisions and events within the policy formulation processes at any of these stages. 

Undoubtedly, NGO advocacy is not limited to influencing government and donor policies; 

increasingly, it is also concerned about influencing the private sector (Lewis and Kanji, 2009). 

Advocacy by development NGOs may entail the use of routine political channels or more 

confrontational acts of protests and demonstrations. It may also involve organized meetings, 



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

public hearings, legal action, petitions, public statements, organizing seminars, monitoring, etc. 

(Park, 2002). An example of an NGO which uses advocacy communication is Survival 

International, an international NGO based in the United Kingdom that supported the Basarwa in 

Botswana in their resistance to protect their right to the Central Kgalagadi Game Reserve 

(Lekorwe & Mpabanga, 2007). Also, the Ghana Coalition of NGOs in Water and Sanitation, 

together with Water Aid, used advocacy communication to facilitate the creation of a national 

water policy for the country (Lane, 2005). Thus, advocacy communication has been a vital 

approach NGOs resort in their operations. In effect, advocacy communication has become a vital 

approach NGOs use in contemporary development practice. However, Edwards (1993) points 

out that the results of NGO advocacy communication can be very disappointing. It is attributable 

mainly to factors such as the lack of a clear strategy, a failure to build strong alliances, an 

inability to develop alternative measures, and the dilemmas that often characterize NGO-donor 

relationships.  

Another example of the NGO catalyst role is that of innovation. An ability to innovate is often 

claimed as a special quality, or even as an area of competitive advantage of NGOs over other 

institutions concerned with development, especially government agencies (Bebbington et al., 

cited in Lewis & Kanji, 2009). Though not all NGOs are into innovations, the idea that NGOs 

contribute new approaches to poverty reduction is not in doubt. In support of this position, Clark 

(1991) found evidence that NGOs' staff considerably experiment, adapt, and try new approaches 

to problem-solving in communities. NGOs also encourage individuals to develop their ideas, 

experiment and take risks to address their own needs. It is argued that NGO capacities to 

innovate are outcomes of the quality of the relationships that an NGO can construct (Biggs & 

Chambers, cited in Lewis & Kanji, 2009). 

Non-governmental organizations also perform the critical function of the watchdogs to monitor 

organizations in order to evaluate which ones honestly abide by their policies (Najam, 1999). 

NGOs play this role through whistle-blower networks to unearth the failure and shortcomings of 

institutions that may not be abiding by either the commitment to implementation or poor 

execution of policies. The watchdog role may also involve an environmental scanning of the 

policy horizon for events and activities that have the potential to obstruct future policy 



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

formulation and implementation. Lodge and Wilson (2006) contend that NGOs act as powerful 

watchdogs even though they lack formal mandate or legal backing. In essence, NGOs tend to act 

as watchdogs of the state by ensuring that state actors work to fulfill public interests.  

A critical aspect of contemporary development policy is the creation of partnerships aimed at 

engendering the efficient use of scarce resources, increasing institutional sustainability, and 

improving the quality of an NGO's interactions with stakeholders and actors in the development 

context. A partnership is generally defined as a relationship based on mutually defined sets of 

links between two or more agencies within a development project or program. It often involves 

the division of roles and responsibilities, sharing risks, and pursuing joint objectives (Lewis & 

Kanji, 2009). It is also seen as an arrangement that draws together the resources of specified 

partners to create capacity and act based on a defined set of goals (Kamando, 2014). Clear roles 

help to ensure effective partnerships (Lewis & Kanji, 2009).  

Some NGOs enter into organizational relationships to gain access to external resources that are 

conditionally based on partnerships. Others may enter into partnerships without careful 

consideration of the broader implications. For instance, new roles for NGO staff may have to be 

created to actualize the demands of the partnership realistically. Management systems may also 

be required to monitor the progress of new activities within the partnership (Farrington & 

Bebbington, cited in Lewis & Kanji, 2009). For example, in a study of partnerships within an 

aquaculture project in Bangladesh, Lewis, as cited in Lewis & Kanji (2009), found that the 

supposed partnerships defined in the project documents occurred between NGOs and 

government agencies primarily to gain access to external resources. Indeed, the partnership was 

not based on any kind of complementarity or functional arrangements. Although there may be a 

consensus among the partners in such scenarios, the lack of clearly defined roles and 

responsibilities can often create conflicts (Lewis, 2005; Lewis & Kanji, 2009). Partners may also 

incur additional costs such as new lines of communications, logistical burdens, new 

responsibilities for individual staff, and the need to share information with other agencies 

 

Additionally, NGOs need to reconsider their communication approaches to achieve their 

missions seriously. In support of this position, Dzisah (2019) contends that a time has come for 

NGOs to look for appropriate communication strategies to generate adequate resources to 



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

undertake development services. Dzisah (2019) adds that communication approaches such as 

awareness creation, behavior change communication, and social mobilization can adequately be 

used by NGOs for mobilizing resources for development services. The importance of behavior 

established by Odoom (2021). 

Empirical Review 

This section reviews relevant studies on NGOs' development service delivery. It generally looks 

at the research aims, the methodological issues, and key findings of these empirical studies. We 

begin this review of the literature with the assessment of Islam (2015) on the contributions of 

NGOs to community development in Bangladesh in a qualitative research approach using a 

multi-method data collection procedure. The findings showed that NGOs play crucial roles in 

community development and encourage community participation in development processes. In 

this regard, again, in Bangladesh, Kabeer et al. (2008) found that Nijera Kori (NK), a 

Bangladesh-based NGO, offered development services aimed primarily at improving the 

livelihoods of communities. Another study conducted by Desai (2005) revealed that NGO 

interventions play a critical role in empowering women, men, and households to meet their basic 

needs. Other roles and functions of NGOs, including counseling and support service, awareness-

raising and advocacy, legal aid, and microfinance services, help build community empowerment 

(Desai, 2005).  

Additionally, a similar study was conducted in the Central Region of Uganda to study the 

relevance of NGOs concerning the health, education, and agriculture sectors (Nalere, Yago & 

Oriel, 2015). In this case study, 87 respondents were selected using a stratified sampling 

technique. Using a triangulated method involving questionnaires, focus group discussions 

(FGDs), and interviews, key informants and documentary review were used to gather data. The 

researcher used the probit regression model for analysis (Nalere et al., 2015). The study showed 

that NGOs contributed to improvements in the health, education, agriculture, and rural industry 

sectors in the development of the rural areas of Uganda.  



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

Omofonmwan and Odia (2009) examined some of the community interventions of NGOs in 

Nigeria using purposive sampling, interviews, and observations. The authors found that NGOs in 

Nigeria provide development interventions in essential areas such as environment, health and 

sanitation sensitization and awareness, and advocacy for child rights. Similarly, a study 

conducted by Brass (2010) sought to examine service provision in education, healthcare, 

es, and other information the researcher 

sample of governmental and non-governmental services providers, government officials, and 

ordinary Kenyans. Brass (2010) found that healthcare, education, and agriculture interventions 

were central to the social contract between the Kenyan state and its citizens. 

A study conducted in Nigeria by Enyioko (2012) to investigate the impact of NGOs on 

sustainable agriculture and awareness creation in rural areas involved a sample size of 180 

participants selected randomly from beneficiaries, non-beneficiaries, and employees of 

development agencies. Basic statistical tools such as frequencies and percentages were used to 

analyze data. The study revealed that NGOs are very effective in sustainable rural development 

activities in education, health, agriculture, energy, environment and waste management, 

empowerment, and poverty alleviation. Matsvai (2018) also evaluated the impact of various 

NGO interventions on communities in Zimbabwe using primary data and descriptive statistical 

analysis. His results showed that NGOs play a critical role in agriculture productivity and growth 

in income, improved sustainability of livelihoods, and general rural development. In a similar 

study in Zimbabwe, Chitongo (2013) conducted a study on the impact of the development 

interventions implemented by the Catholic Relief Services (CRS) on beneficiaries. It was 

observed that CRS's programs improved productivity in livestock farming and water and 

sanitation in the country. 

Nalubiri (2010) has explored how local NGOs and community groups act towards sustaining 

NGO social interventions at the community level. Using an exploratory design, Nalubiri sought 

to investigate why it is so difficult to sustain benefits that accrue from NGO's work. The study 

found that local participation, empowerment, ownership, multiple benefits, and coordination 

among development actors positively affect the sustainability of NGO development 



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

interventions. (2017) have also examined the contribution of NGOs towards 

sustainable community development. Their study focused on NGOs' roles, functions, and 

programs, such as microfinance, capacity building, and self-reliance. found 

that NGOs' interventions improve the economic well-being of communities through job creation 

and income generation. It leads to economic empowerment for sustainable community 

development.  

Restoring Coastal Livelihoods Project (2010-2015) 

in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, as a case study. The project promoted gender equality through 

group economic empowerment. The researcher adopted the qualitative approach using an 

ethnographic design. Interviews, observation, and documentary reviews were used as 

instruments for data collection. Thematic analysis was used for the study. The study found that 

women beneficiaries perceived empowerment mostly based on their experiences with the project. 

The study found that the degree of empowerment depended on the nature of activities and the 

general understanding of gender relations.  

Quaicoo (2006) conducted a study to examine World Vision Ghana's (WVG) contributions to the 

development of basic education in the Twifo Hemang-Lower Denkyira District in the Central 

Region of Ghana. The study involved 469 respondents using a mixed-method that included a 

survey using questionnaires, interviews, FGDs, and observation as the instruments for data 

collection. The study found that although WVG had contributed to improvement in educational 

facilities, community members believed it could have done far better than performed in terms of 

providing development services. Another study was conducted by Dangah (2012) on the role of 

ProNet, an NGO based in Northern Ghana, in providing water and sanitation for the people of 

the Nadowli District. The study used primary and secondary data and involved 189 respondents 

from five communities. The respondents were chosen using simple random and purposive 

sampling techniques with structured interviews and focus group discussion as data collection 

instruments. The study found that ProNet activities in education, water, and sanitation 

significantly improved the communities.  



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

education in the Awutu-Senya District of Ghana using a qualitative research approach. The semi-

structured interviews and FGDs were used to get the perspectives of officials of the NGO and 23 

members of the beneficiary communities, including school children, parents, and teachers. The 

improvements in the quality of their educational experience, especially in the area of the learning 

environment and service delivery. However, problems like high expectations from the NGO and 

apathy from some community members became manifest in this study.  

In the context of sustainability of development interventions, however, the contribution of NGOs 

has been met with mixed reactions. F

community development in Vietnam, Hibbard and Tang (2004) concluded that sustainable rural 

development is process-oriented and requires extensive community participation that relies on 

networking to share resources and knowledge, and expertise. Contrary to the Hibbard and Tang 

(2004) findings, Zakaria (2011) observed that many of the development services undertaken by 

NGOs in places such as Savelugu-Nantong District in northern Ghana often are unsustainable. 

questionnaires, FGDs, and observation guides as data collection instruments. It was concluded 

that NGOs in the district did not exhibit enough commitment to ensuring their interventions' 

sustainability.  

Adjei et al. (2012) studied the impact of NGO-led interventions in the Tain District of Ghana 

using a mixed-method approach. The research involved 198 respondents using the purposive 

sampling technique, beneficiaries of four main NGOs: Plan Ghana, ActionAid Ghana, Rural 

Action Alliance Program, and Social Development and Improvement Agency. Adjei et al. found 

that although the NGOs were involved in providing social services for the rural communities, 

they had invested much of their funding into livelihood programs to increase productivity and 

household income. The authors concluded that the role of NGOs in the development service 

provisions 

development interventions on the livelihood of farmers in the Yilo Krobo area in the Eastern 

Region of Ghana using a mixed-method approach. This study relied on purposive and simple 

random sampling techniques to select 150 respondents using a cross-sectional design, while 

interviews and questionnaires were used for data collection. The study found that ADRA's 



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

intervention contributed positively to an increase in farm sizes, rising mango output, higher 

incomes, and improved livelihoods of most farmers.  

Odoom (2021) investigated the contributions of World Vision Ghana to community development 

in rural Ghana. The study focused on the Cocoa Life Project interventions implemented by 

World Vision Ghana in the Wassa East District. The study population consisted of mostly 

farmers, gari processors, soap makers, and members of village savings and loans associations 

from beneficiary communities were considered in a sequential-dependence mixed-method 

research approach. 406 sample size was chosen for the study using the stratified, simple random 

and convenience sampling methods, with interview schedule and focus group discussion guide as 

the instruments for data collection. For quantitative analysis, means and standard deviation were 

used, whereas the qualitative data were analyzed thematically. The study found that WVG's 

interventions under the Cocoa Life Project were highly relevant to education, business 

development, financial literacy, microcredit facilities, agriculture, and livelihood diversification 

within beneficiary communities. Besides, awareness creation and behavior change 

communication were some of the strategies WVG relied upon to promote community 

development in beneficiary communities. Although the interventions helped to promote behavior 

change, there were concerns regarding the overall change in behavior within the communities. 

Odoom (2021) concluded that for NGOs to have a fuller understanding of the development 

problems of communities they operate in, they should pay attention to appropriate development 

communication strategies and approaches in their operations.  

Key Insights and Gaps in the Selected Literature  

NGOs are important stakeholders in terms of development service provisions. Their services 

help to improve the lives of poor and vulnerable people in many parts of the developing world, 

including Ghana. NGOs are credited for their advocacy and public campaign efforts to bring 

about positive social transformation. NGO activities, among others, also help to ensure 

community improvement, poverty alleviation, capacity building, community empowerment, 

good governance, and environmental activism (Lane, 1995; Lewis & Kanji, 2009). As an 

umbrella terminology, NGO generally encompasses numerous types of organizations with a 

multiplicity of interests, orientation, and functional foci. NGO is also often used interchangeably 



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

with terms such as not-for-profit, voluntary organizations, charity organizations, and civil society 

organizations (CSOs). These different terms used to describe NGOs reflect the different forms of 

NGOs operating in a given setting (Lewis & Kanji, 2009; Moyo, 2000). Again, these different 

terms result from the different cultures and histories that have underpinned the emergence of 

NGOs. NGOs predominantly operate without the influence and dictates of the state. They are 

not-for-profit entities that provide voluntary, charity, and altruistic services to improve the 

vulnerable, marginalized, and less privileged lives.  

In the context of constructing a typology for NGOs, it is evident from the literature review that 

no unified consensus exists amongst scholars and researchers, owing mainly to the vastly 

divergent positions from which NGOs are theorized and conceptualized. For instance, Lane 

(1995) sees the types of NGOs in terms of welfare and relief, modernization, community 

development, and institution building; Cousins (1991) and Willetts (2002) categorize NGOs 

based on their orientation, level of operation, and advocacy; while others classify NGOs based 

on autonomy, location, and scope of activities (Gyamfi, 2010; Helen, Cunt and Sujata, 2005; 

Farrington, Lewis, and Paul, cited in Dugle et al., 2015; Turary, 2002), and their legal status 

(Dugle et al., 2015; Stillman, 2007). While Cousins (1991) and Willetts (2002) appear silent on 

the difference between operational and advocacy NGOs, Mostashari (2005) maintains that the 

distinction between operational and advocacy NGOs manifests mainly in the choice between 

small-scale change and large-scale change. Despite the differences in typologies, these authors 

generally agree that the over-arching aim of NGOs is to improve the lives of their constituents. 

Kamat (2002) and Mayo (2000) acknowledge that NGOs need to have clearly defined 

development objectives in order to make their activities and motivations relevant to the very 

people they wish to serve. Also, it should be pointed out that improving people's lives can only 

be done effectively through a conscious understanding of the philosophical orientations 

underpinning the work of every NGO. These orientations form the foundational basis for the 

approaches used to typify NGOs. Indeed, a clear typology of NGO is useful since it helps to 

appropriately delineate the limits from the objectives and intentions of NGO operations. 

Moreover, it is evident from the review that the role of NGOs in contemporary development 

practice can be categorized mainly into three: service delivery, catalyst, and partnership (Lewis 

& Kanji, 2009). NGOs deliver services in many parts of the world where people lack access to 

several vital basic services or where such services are of poor quality, which is often the case in 



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

many areas (Carroll, 1992; Lewis & Kanji, 2009). As catalysts, NGOs bring about change 

throug

catalysts in development services is manifested in how they innovate and creatively apply 

modern techniques and strategies to solve development problems (Lewis & Kanji, 2009). 

Finally, NGOs form a partnership with a plethora of organizations in order to achieve mutually 

beneficial goals.    

The empirical review of the literature in this paper reveals that several studies have been 

conducted on NGO activities and services in the development arena using different research 

approaches and with varying results. Using a mixed-method research approach, Islam (2015) 

found that NGOs play a crucial role in community development and participation in Bangladesh. 

The findings of Islam (2015) are in line with Omofonmwan and Odia (2009), who observed, 

through qualitative research, that NGOs provide several community development interventions 

in Nigeria. Specifically, Omofonmwan and Odia (2009) found that NGOs in Nigeria provide 

community development services in essential areas, including environment, health; sanitation 

Nalere 

et al. (2015) in Uganda revealed that NGOs' services are relevant in health, education, 

agriculture, and improving the industry. In a mixed-method study in Ghana, Quaicoo (2006) also 

found that NGO activities are critical to developing education in the Central Region of the 

country.  

The gaps in the studies conducted by Islam (2015) and Nalere et al. (2015) potentially present 

challenges to a better understanding of the methodological logic that informed their studies. 

However, unlike Omofonmwan and Odia (2009), it is difficult to grasp the specific mixed 

methods design adopted in the study conducted by Islam (2015). Thus, the apparent gap in 

the research. Again, the deficiency in the study conducted by Nalere et al. (2015) in Uganda lies 

in the over-reliance on only quantitative tools for data analysis, given the mixed method nature 

of the research. The use of only quantitative analytical tools in the study is problematic simply 

because mixed methods studies are characterized by analytical techniques that suit both 



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

quantitative and qualitative research. Thus, it is unacceptable for researchers to undertake mixed 

methods studies when they intend to do only quantitative analysis.  

vital to the operations of NGOs. The failure to interrogate other aspects of development 

undertaken by NGOs hinders a broader approach to bridging the gap in theory and practice in 

study manifests in his apparent failure to clearly explain the specific mixed-method research 

design employed for the research. In short, there are theoretical, conceptual, and methodological 

Omofonmwan and Odia (2009), Islam (2015), and Nalere et al. (2015) corroborate the position 

that NGOs play a crucial role in development services.  

On the issue of sustainability of development interventions, a study by Enyioko (2012) in 

Nigeria showed that NGOs promote sustainable agriculture and awareness creation in rural areas 

of the country. The study further found that NGOs effectively promote sustainable rural 

development activities in several sectors of the economy, including education, health, 

agriculture, energy, environment and waste, and community empowerment and poverty 

alleviation. Using an exploratory design, Nalubiri (2010) also found that local participation, 

empowerment, ownership, multiple benefits, and coordination, among others, positively affect 

the sustainability of NGO development interventions. Furthermore, (2017) 

established that NGOs ensure sustainable community development through job creation and 

income generation, whereas in Vietnam, Hibbard and Tang (2004) found that NGOs promote 

sustainable rural development.  

Contrary to the findings of Enyioko (2012), Nalubiri (2010), (2017), and 

Hibbard and Tang (2004), a study in Savelugu-Nantong District of Ghana by Zakaria (2011) 

stainable. There is no consensus in the 

literature concerning the kind of attention NGOs give to sustainable development practices. 

However, despite the importance of Hibbard and Tang's (2004) findings, it should be pointed out 

that their study could not adequately unearth the essential issues that confront the sustainability 

of such development services provided by NGOs. It is a conceptual weakness that needs to be 



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

addressed through further studies. Beyond the conceptual inadequacies, it can be seen from the 

empirical review that while Enyioko (2012) provided a clear methodological framework 

informing the study, a similar conclusion cannot be advanced in support of the studies conducted 

by Nalubiri (2010) and (2017). For instance, the kind of analytical tools that 

informed  

Similarly, the gaps in  qualitative study include that the questionnaire was used 

without any sufficient justifications. Questionnaires are purely employed for quantitative studies. 

Thus, using a questionnaire in a qualitative study puts the methodology adopted by Zakaria 

(2011) into question. Despite these conceptual and methodological weaknesses, the review has 

demonstrated that NGOs play a key role in the area of sustainable development. 

Additionally, the studies by both Adjei et al. (2012) and Sono (2013) in Ghana showed that 

NGOs provide interventions to improve people's livelihood. However, unlike Adjei et al., Sono 

(2013) failed to provide a methodological framework that was scientifically rigorous enough for 

the study. Specifically, Sono (2013) failed to indicate the tools for analyzing the qualitative data. 

Qualitative aspects of mixed methods studies help to offer additional perspectives to complement 

the quantitative aspects of the research. Thus, a clear identification of the qualitative tools used 

helps the reader to have a deeper understanding of the findings from multiple perspectives. 

Based on Odoom's (2021) study, it is apparent that NGOs are active agents of community 

to understand their constituents' diverse development problems. NGOs are to rethink their 

approaches and strategies in defining the development needs of people. For NGOs to have an 

adequate understanding of communities' development problems, they serve Odoom (2021) calls 

for them to employ appropriate and well-planned development communication strategies and 

views of other stakeholders, such as officials of WVG who took part in the delivery of the 

project. Indeed, the inclusion of other stakeholders in the study could have widened and possibly 

improved the perspectives of the issues examined in his study.  

services (Bessette, 2000), there are concerns about the level of participation within the NGO 



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

sector (Dempsey, 2009; Long, 2001). More efforts need to be put in place by NGOs to make 

participatory approaches relevant to the delivery of their development services. Bessette (2000) 

argues that participatory communication 

communication strategies for development. However, Bessette (2000) submits that NGOs need 

to be supported to pursue and incorporate participatory development practices in delivering 

development services. For instance, capacity building for NGO workers in participatory 

development communication will crucially prepare NGOs to develop and implement 

participatory development communication approaches to deliver development services (Bessette, 

2000). NGOs are also advised to look for other approaches and communication strategies 

appropriate for development service provisions. Also, apart from advocacy communication, 

NGOs can employ awareness creation, behavior change communication, and social mobilization 

as strategies when undertaking development services (Dzisah, 2019; Odoom, 2021). Again, due 

to the dwindling funds from both local and international sponsors, NGOs are to use very useful 

communication approaches to mobilize funds and other resources to undertake development 

activities (Dzisah, 2019).  

Despite the contributions of NGOs to development services, there are concerns about the 

operations of NGOs. It is recognized that the control of local influential persons and educated 

elites who mostly have political connections pose a danger to democratic management and 

decision-making structures (Andreasen, 2001; Myllyla, 2001). Again, the opportunistic nature of 

NGOs tends to hinder their capacity to deliver development services (Barr et al., 2003). NGOs 

have been appreciated more than the public sector regarding development service provisions 

despite the concerns associated with their operations. Mohan (2002) strengthens this position by 

asserting that given  philosophy; it makes more sense to have inefficient NGOs 

than to have inefficient states. 

Conclusions 

This paper reviewed concepts, themes, and previous studies related to the role of NGOs in 

development service provisions and the approaches NGOs adopt. The paper has established that 

NGOs remain indispensable in the development discourse due to the increasing inability of the 

state to provide adequate development services to the citizenry single-handedly. Again, the paper 

tried to locate the place of NGOs in society within the context of the global recognition of 



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

people's dissatisfaction with other development approaches. NGOs are entities whose operations 

are not under the manipulation and control of the state. NGOs are essentially not for profit-

making, and so are their activities and services. Attempts at providing services based on 

voluntarism, altruism, relief, welfare, and humanitarianism have become the mainstay and 

underpinning motivations for NGO operations. Also, there are varying terminologies used to 

describe NGOs due to the diverse philosophies, cultures, and histories associated with the 

emergence of NGOs. Though NGOs contribute substantially to the delivery of vital development 

services, the foci, functions, approaches, and the means they use may differ due to the vastly 

multifaceted nature of development. These differences tend to inform the varying 

conceptualizations and typologies of NGOs. It is noteworthy that various factors, including areas 

of operation, functions, service provision, intermediary, and advocacy, influence NGO typology, 

and classification. Besides, 

such as education, agriculture, health, water and sanitation, and employment creation.  

NGOs also provide microfinance, financial literacy, livelihood diversification, and governance 

services. Despite the contribution of NGOs in development service provision, there is a lack of 

so, the infiltration of local influential persons and educated elites with political connections 

coupled with the opportunistic nature of some NGOs constitutes a major threat to the overall 

effectiveness of NGOs in development service provisions. Further, there are concerns with 

regard to the nature of participatory approaches NGOs employ in the provision of development 

services. It is not surprising because participatory development communication has not received 

adequate attention within the NGO sector. 

Moreover, there are theoretical, conceptual, and methodological gaps in the literature concerning 

NGOs' activities and strategies. As a recommendation, NGOs are encouraged to pay increased 

attention to communication approaches such as participatory communication, scholarly 

communication, social mobilization and awareness creation, advocacy, and behavior change 

communication. Besides, NGOs are called upon to deeply reflect on how they can use 

communication approaches and strategies as vital tools for achieving their set goals. Effective 

use of relevant communication approaches and strategies by NGOs can help them mobilize 



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

enough resources for development services. Finally, more studies need to be conducted from 

different perspectives using appropriate methodologies to bridge the gap between theory and 

practice in the NGO sector. It is only through such means that the continuing relevance of NGOs 

in development services can be firmly established. 

References 
 

Adjei, P. O. W., Agyemang, S., & Afriyie, K. (2012). Non-Governmental Organizations and  
Rural Poverty Reduction in Northern Ghana: Perspectives of Beneficiaries on Strategies, 
Impact and Challenges. Journal of Poverty Alleviation and International Development, 3 
(2): 47-73. 

Adjei, J. K., & Arun. T. (2009). Microfinance program and the poor: Whom are they reaching?  
Evidence from Ghana. Manchester: Brooks World Poverty Institute. 

Andreasen, J. (2001). 'The Legacy of Mobilisation from Above: Participation in a Zanzibar 
Neighbourhood'. In A. Tostensen, I. Tvedten, and M. Vaa (eds.), Associational life in 
African cities Popular responses to the Urban Crisis (Nordiska Afrikainstitutet). 

Banks, N., & Hulme, D. (2012). The role of NGOs and civil society in development and poverty  
reduction. BWPI Working Paper 171. Manchester: The Brooks World Poverty Institute. 

Barr, A., Fafchamps, M., & Trudy. O. (2003). Non-governmental organizations 
in Uganda: A report to the Government of Uganda. Centre for the Study of African 
Economics, Department of Economics, Oxford University. 

Barr, A., Fafchamps, M., & Trudy, O. (2005). The governance of NGOs in Uganda. World  
Development, 33 (4): 657-679. 

Behera, M. C. (2006). Introduction. In M. C. Behera (Ed.), Globalizing rural development: 
Competing paradigms and emerging realities (pp. 5-19). New Delhi, India: Sage. 

Bessette, G. (2000). Participatory development communication: A West African Agenda.  
Ottawa: International Development Research Centre.  

Brass, N. J. (2010). Surrogates for Government? NGOs and the State in Kenya. Unpublished  
doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley. 

Brass, J. N. (2011). Blurring boundaries: The integration of NGOs into governance in Kenya. An  
International Journal of Policy, Administration, and Institutions, 25 (2): 209-235. 

Brass, J. N. (2012). Why do NGOs go where they go? World Development, 40 (2): 387-401. 
Carroll, T.F. (1992). Intermediary NGOs: The Supporting Link in Grassroots Development.  

Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press. 
Chambers, R. (1992). Spreading and self-improving: A strategy for scaling up. In Edwards, M.,  

and Hulme, D. (eds.), Making a difference: NGOs and development in a changing world. 
London: Earthscan. 40-48. 

Chitongo, L. (2013). The contribution of NGOs to rural development: The case of Catholic  
Relief Services protecting vulnerable livelihoods program in Zimbabwe. Asian Journal of 
Management Sciences and Education, 2 (3):144-143. 

Clark, D. J. (2002). NGOs and the State. In Desai, V., and Potter, R.B. (eds.), The Companion to  
Development Studies. London: Arnold. 

Cousins, W. (1991). Non-governmental initiatives. In Asian Development Bank and Economic  



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

Development Institute (Eds.), The Urban Poor and Basic Infrastructure Services in Asia 
and the Pacific: A report on a regional seminar held January 22-28, Manila, Philippines, 
pp 83  112. Manila: Asian Development Bank. 

Dangah, M. M. (2012). The role of NGOs in the provision of water and sanitation in Northern  

Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. 
Dempsey, S. E. (2009). NGOs, communicative labor, and the work of grassroots representation. 

Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 6, 328-345. 
Desai, V. (2002a). Community participation in development. In Desai, V., and Potter, R.B.  

(eds.), The Companion to Development Studies. London: Arnold. 117-121. 
Desai, V. (2002b). The Role of Non-Governmental Organisation (NGOs) In Desai, V., and  

Potter, R.B. (eds.), The Companion to Development Studies. London: Arnold. 495-499. 
Desai, V. (2005). NGOs, gender mainstreaming, and urban poor communities in Mumbai.  

Gender and Development, 13 (2): 90-98. 
Dugle, G., Akanbang, B. A. A., & Salakpi, A. (2015). Nature of Non-Governmental  

Organisations involved in local development in the Upper West Region of Ghana. Ghana 
Journal of Development Studies, 12 (1 and 2): 142-163. 

Dzisah, W. S. (2019). Relevance of Communication Strategies and Funding Orphanages in  
Ghana. Ghana Journal of Development Studies, 16(3): 87-108. 

Edwards, M., & Hulme, D. (1996). Too close for comfort? The impact of official aid on NGOs.  
World Development, 24 (6): 961-973. 

Egyir, B. B. (2013). The role of NGOs in rural development: A case study of World Vision  
Ghana in Mfantseman district. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Kwame Nkrumah 
University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. 

Ellis, F. (2000). Rural livelihoods and diversity in developing countries. Oxford: Oxford 
University Press. 

Enyioko, N.C. (2012). Role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in rural development:  
Study of the six listed NGOs in Rivers State, Nigeria. Medicine Consulting and Research 
Institute. 

Farrington, J., Bebbington, A., Wellard, K., & Lewis, J. D. (1993). Reluctant partners? NGOs,  
the state and sustainable agriculture development. New York: Routledge. 

Francis, P. (2002). Social capital, civil society and social exclusion. In Kothari, U., and Minogue,  
M. (eds.), Development Theory and Practice: Critical Perspectives. Hampshire: 
Palgrave. 71-91. 

Gallin, D. (1999). Trade unions and NGOs in social development: A necessary partnership.  
Geneva: Global Labour Institute. 

Gyamfi, P. (2010). Financing local non-governmental organizations in Ghana: Issues and  
challenges
Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. 

Hearn, J. (2007). Roundtable: African NGOs: The new compradors? Development and Change,  
38 (6): 1095 1110. 

2017). The role of NGOs in promoting empowerment for  
sustainable community development. Journal of Human Ecology, 30 (2):85-92. 

Helen, C., Cunt, G., & Sujata, R. (2005). Engaging local non-governmental organizations in the  



Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

response to HIV/AIDS. Washington DC: Pact, Inc. 
Hibbard, M., & Tang, C. C. (2004). Sustainable community development: A social approach  

from Vietnam. Community Development Society, 35 (2): 87-105. 
Hudock, A. C. (1999). NGOs and civil society: Democracy by proxy? Malden, MA: Blackwell  

Publishers Inc. 
Hulme, D., & Edwards, M. (1997). Too close for comfort: NGOs, the state and donors. London:  

 
Islam, R. M. (2015). Non-governmental organizations and community development in  

Bangladesh. SAGE Journal, 60 (2):479-493. 
Kabeer, N., Huq, T.Y., & Kabir, A.H. (2008). Quantifying the impact of social mobilization in  

Rural Bangladesh: An analysis of Nijera Kori. Brighton: Institute of Development 
Studies.  

Kamat, S. (2004). The privatization of public interest: theorizing NGO discourse in a neoliberal  
era. Review of International Political Economy, 11(1): 155-176. 

Korten, D. (1990). Getting to the 21st Century: Voluntary Action and the global agenda. 
Connecticut: Kumarian Press. 

Lane, J. (1995). Non-governmental organizations and participatory development:  The concept in  
theory versus the concept in practice. In Nelson, N., and Wright, S. (eds.), Power and 
Participatory Development: Theory and Practice. London. Intermediate Technology 
Publications.181-191. 

Lekorwe, M., & Mpabanga, D. (2007). Managing NGOs in Botswana. The Public Sector  
Innovation Journal, 12 (3): 1-18. 

Lewis, D. (2005). Actors, ideas and networks: Trajectories of the non-governmental in  
development studies. In Kothari, U. (ed.), A radical history of development studies. 
London: Zed Books. 

Lewis, D., & Kanji, N. (2009). Non-governmental organizations and development. London and  
New York: Routledge. 

Lindenberg, M., & Bryant, C. (2001). Going global: Transforming relief and development  
NGOs. Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian. 

Lodge, G., & Wilson, C. (2006). A corporate solution to global poverty: How multinationals can  
help the poor and invigorate their own legitimacy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University 
Press. 

Long, C. (2001). Participation of the poor in development initiatives: Taking their rightful place.  
London: Earthscan Publications Ltd. 

Matsvai, S. (2018).  
Zimbabwe: The case of Gutu district, Mutubuki Chitenderano Association. International 
Journal of Development and Sustainability, 7 (6):1960-1975. 

Mawdsley, E., Townsend, J., Porter, G., & Oakley, P. (2002). Knowledge, power and  
development agenda: NGOs north and south. Oxford: INTRAC. 

Mayo, M. 1(994). Communities and Caring: The mixed economy of welfare. New York: St.  
Martin's Press, Inc. 

Mohan, G. (2001). 'Participation: Strategies for Deeper Empowerment. In Bill and Uma 
Kothari Cooke (ed.), participation: the new tyranny. London: ZED Books. 

Mostashari, A. (2005). An introduction to non-governmental organizations management. Iranian  
Studies Group, MIT.  

Moyo, S. (2000). The structure and characteristics of NGOs. In PRA, poverty and livelihoods:  



PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

reflections from inside the bowels of an international NGO. S. Moyo and K. Neefjes. In 
Pathways to Participation: Reflections on PRA. A. Cornwell & G. Pratt (eds). London: 
ITDG Publishing.  

Murray, W. E., & Overton, J. D. (2011). Neoliberalism is dead, long live neoliberalism?  
Neostructuralism and the international aid regime of the 2000s. Progress in Development 
Studies, 11(4): 307 319. 

Muchtar, A. T. (2017). Understanding the influence of development interventions on women  

Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.  
Najam, A. (1999). NGO accountability: a conceptual framework. Development Policy Review,  

14(4): 39-53.  
Nalere, P., Yago, M., & Oriel, K. (2015). The contribution of rural institutions to rural  

development: Study of smallholder farmer groups and NGOs in Uganda. International 
NGO Journal, 4, 37-51. 

Nalubiri, A. G. (2010). Sustaining local NGO social intervention-benefits in Uganda.  
 

Nelson, P. (2002). New agendas and new patterns of international NGO political action.  
International Journal of Voluntary and Non-profit Organizations, 13 (4):377-392. 

Odoom, D. (2021). Relevance of Cocoa Life Project Interventions to Community Development  
in Rural Ghana: Exploring the Views of Beneficiaries in Wassa East District. Journal of 
Development and Communication Studies, 8(1), 22-48, 
https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jdcs.v8i1.2. 

Odoom, D. (2020). Understanding Development Communication: A Review of Selected  
Literature. E-Journal of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 1(1): 37  48. 

Odoom, D., Annor-Frempong, F., Akaba, S., Agyepong, L., Obeng-Mensah, A., & Obeng-Baah, 
J. (2021). The Challenge of Participation in Community Development Activities in Rural 
Ghana: Implications for Effective Development Communication. Tanzania Journal of 
Development Studies, 19(1), 1-31. 

Odoom, D., Yeboah, R., Opoku, E., & Osei-Wusu, P. (2018). Appreciating the challenge of  
community participation in NGO-led development interventions: An analysis of some 
existing literature. International Journal in Management and Social Science, 6(10): 30-
52. 

Okorley, E. L., & Nkrumah, E. E. (2012). Organizational factors influencing sustainability of  
local non-governmental organizations: Lessons from a Ghanaian context. International 
Journal of Social Economics, 39 (5):330-341. 

Omofonmwan, S. I., & Odia, L. O. (2009). The role of Non-Governmental Organisations in  
community development: Focus on Edo State Nigeria. Anthropologist, 11(4): 247-254. 

Oxfam (2008).  Retrieved June 12,  
2018. Accessed from: www.oxfamint.org.in/livelihoods.htm.  

Park, S. (2002). NGOs, government and policy. Seoul: Arche. 
Pearce, J. (2000). Development, NGOs and civil society. Oxford: Oxfam. 
Quaicoe, J. B. (2006). Contributions of World Vision Ghana in support of basic education in  

rural Ghana: A case study of the Twifo Hemang Lower Denkyira District. Unpublished 
 

https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jdcs.v8i1.2.
http://www.oxfamint.org.in/livelihoods.htm.


Daniel O., Joseph O.B., Lawrencia A., Non-Governmental Organizations and Development... 

Robinson, M., & White, G. (1997). The role of civic organizations in the provision of social  
services. Research for Action Papers 37. Helsinki: United Nations University/World  
Institute for Development Economics Research. 

Sarfo, B. G. K. (2013).  
right to quality education: The case of Awutu-Senya district of Ghana. Unpublished 

 Norwegian University of Science and Technology. 
Sen, A.K. (2012). Development as Capability Expansion. In DeFilippis, J., and Saegert. S. (eds.),  

The Community Development Reader. London: Routledge. 320-323. 
, in J. Servaes (ed.).  

Walking on the Other Side of the Information Highway. Communication, Culture and 
 

Sono, H. S. (2013).  
Distric  

Stillman, G. B. (2007). Global standard NGOs: The essential elements of good practice. Tokyo:  
Grant B. Stillman. 

Streeten, P. (1997). Non-governmental Organizations and Development. Annals of the American  
Academy of Political and Social Science, 554, 193-210. 

 
Hewitt, T. (eds.), Development Action and Public Policy. Oxford: Oxford University 
Press. 

 
rationale for working with NGOs in development. In Bebbington, A., Hickey, S., and 
Mitlin, D. (eds.). Can NGOs make a difference? The challenge of development 
alternatives, London: Zed Books. 90 110. 

Thomas, A., & Allen, T. (2000). Agencies of development. In Allen, T., and Thomas, A. (eds.),  
Poverty and Development into 21st Century. Oxford: Open University. 

Todaro, M. P., & Smith, S. C. (2006). Economic Development (9th ed.). Harlow: Pearson  
Addison Wesley. 

Townsend, J.G., Mawdsley, E., & Porter, G. (2002). Challenges for NGOs. In Desai, V., and  
Potter, R.B. (eds.), The companion to development studies. London: Arnold. 534-538. 

Turary, A. (2002). Sustainability of local non-governmental organizations in Ghana.  

Kumasi, Ghana. 
Turner, M., & Hulme, D. (1997). Governance, administration and development: making the state  

work. London: Palgrave. 
Tvedt, T. (1998). Angels of mercy or development diplomats. Oxford: James Curry. 
Vakil, A. C. (1997). Confronting the classification problem: toward a taxonomy of NGOs. World  

Development, 25(12):2057-2070. 
Willetts, P. (2002). What is a non-governmental organization? Output from the research project  

on civil society networks in global governance. Accessed April 08, 2011 from: 
http://www. staff.city.ac.uk/p.willetts/CS-NTWKS/NGO-ART.HTM. 

Winter, P. (2000). Glossary for New Samaritans. In Barrow, O., and Jennings, M. (eds.), The  
Charitable Impulse, NGOs and Development in East and North-East Africa. Oxford: 
James Currey Ltd. 31-44. 

World Vision Ghana. (2016). 2016 Annual Report, Ghana. Accra: World Vision Ghana. 
World Vision International. (2005). A case study of Uganda World Vision International, Africa  

http://www.


PanAfrican Journal of Governance and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 2022 

Office. 
 

Ghana. Retrieved August 22, 2018. Accessed August 22, 2018 from: www.wvi.org/ghana 
Zakaria, J. (2011). An evaluation of NGO-led development interventions and their sustainable  

management in the Savelugu-Nantong District
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. 

http://www.wvi.org/ghana