EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF STEM TRAINING PROGRAMMES IN GHANA BY STEPHANIE KEKELI HORSU MADC23006 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF MEDIA, ARTS AND COMMUNICATION UNIMAC-IJ IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA IN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION. DECEMBER 2024 ii ABSTRACT This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness, challenges, and sustainability of STEM training programs in Ghana. The research employed a quantitative cross-sectional survey design to gather data from 282 participants, including 260 university students and 22 corporate trainers. Simple random sampling was used to select students, while convenience sampling was employed for trainers. Data were collected using structured questionnaires and analyzed with IBM SPSS software, utilizing descriptive statistical techniques. The findings revealed that 46% of trainers rated the programs as highly effective, while 27% viewed them as moderately effective and 18% as limited in impact. Similarly, 85% of students expressed willingness to recommend the programs, reflecting positive individual experiences. Major challenges identified included technological limitations (40% of trainers) and insufficient practical learning resources (25%), which hindered hands-on skill development. Structural and financial barriers, such as inconsistent resource allocation, further constrained program delivery. Promising sustainability efforts were observed, with 55% of trainers engaged in initiatives to ensure program longevity and 91% collaborating with external stakeholders to enhance resource availability. Pre- and post-tests were the most commonly used evaluation method (55%), though diversifying assessment techniques was recommended. Recommendations include enhancing technological infrastructure, providing practical resources, addressing financial barriers, and strengthening sustainability through partnerships and diverse funding models. This study highlights the need for systemic improvements and offers actionable insights to enhance STEM training programs in Ghana. Future research should focus on longitudinal impacts, gender dynamics, and stakeholder collaboration to further inform educational policy and practice. Keywords: STEM, STEM Training, STEM Education, Evaluation, Sustainability, Effectiveness, Impact, Collaboration, Corporate Organization, Curriculum, Reliability, Skills. iii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my family and my husband Mr Joshua Worlasi Amlanu. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I extend my deepest appreciation to the numerous individuals who played instrumental roles in the successful completion of this work. First and foremost, I would like to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Daniel Odoom. Your unwavering guidance, insightful critiques, and consistent support were pivotal in keeping me focused throughout this academic journey. Your mentorship has been invaluable, and I am sincerely thankful for your patience and encouragement. I am also grateful to Mr. Julius Ludu, Computer Science Lecturer at the University of Ghana, Legon, and Mary Bamfo from the Kofi Annan Centre of Excellence, whose contributions were crucial to the success of this study. My heartfelt thanks and appreciation extend to all those who provided support in various capacities, with special mention to my husband, Mr. Joshua Worlasi Amlanu, and my colleague, Joshua Eyram Wordey. Your support has been a cornerstone of my academic pursuit. To all the corporate STEM trainers who participated in this study, I am immensely grateful for your time, insights, and collaboration. v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION BY STUDENT ................................................................................................... i DECLARATION BY SUPERVISOR ............................................................................................. i ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iv LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... xii LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................... xvi CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Background to the Study ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 5 1.2 General Objective ................................................................................................................. 7 1.3 Specific Objectives ............................................................................................................... 7 1.4 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 7 vi 1.5 Significance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 8 1.6 Scope of the Study ................................................................................................................ 8 1.7 Organization of the Study ..................................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 10 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 10 2.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 10 2.1 Theoretical Review ............................................................................................................. 10 2.1.1 Theories of Training and Training effectiveness ......................................................... 10 2.1.2 The Systems Theory .................................................................................................... 11 2.1.4 Kirkpatrick’s Four-Level Evaluation Models .............................................................. 14 2.1.6 Sustainability Theory ................................................................................................... 16 2.1.9 The Synergy between Systems Theory, Kirkpatrick’s Four Model & Sustainability Theory ................................................................................................................................... 18 2.2 Review of Concepts ............................................................................................................ 19 2.2.1 The Concept of Training .............................................................................................. 19 2.2.2 The Concept of Evaluation .......................................................................................... 23 vii 2.2.3 Conceptualization of STEM Education and STEM Training ...................................... 25 2.2.3 Conceptualization of STEM Education and STEM Train ........................................... 27 2.2.4 Role of STEM Education and Training in Enhancing Career Goals of Students ........ 28 2.2.5 Corporate Involvement in STEM Training in Ghana .................................................. 29 2.2.6 Challenges in Implementing and Evaluating Corporate STEM Training in Ghana .... 31 2.3 Empirical Review................................................................................................................ 32 2.4 Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................................... 33 2.5 Lessons Learnt .................................................................................................................... 35 2.6 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 38 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 38 3.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 38 3.1 Research Approach ............................................................................................................. 38 3.2 Research Design.................................................................................................................. 39 3.3 Study Setting and Scope ..................................................................................................... 39 3.4 Study Population ................................................................................................................. 40 viii 3.5 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques .............................................................................. 40 3.6 Data Collection Instrument ................................................................................................. 42 3.7 Validity and Reliability ....................................................................................................... 42 3.8 Data Collection Procedure .................................................................................................. 42 3.9 Data Handling and Analysis ............................................................................................... 43 3.10 Ethical Issues .................................................................................................................... 43 3.11 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................. 44 CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 45 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................................... 45 4.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 45 4.1 Demographic Data .............................................................................................................. 45 4.2 Research Objective 1: Assessment of the impact of STEM training programs on respondents' knowledge, skills, and attitudes towards STEM fields. ............................................................ 52 4.2.0 Respondents’ Views on Training Content, Delivery Methods, Course Objectives and Training Environment ........................................................................................................... 52 4.2.1 Students’ views on whether STEM Training improves their knowledge .................... 53 4.2.2 Students’ Perception on Practical Skills Enhancement ............................................... 54 ix 4.2.3 Perceived Effects of Impact of Training Programs on Technical skills, Problem-solving, Critical Thinking, Digital Literacy, Collaborative Skills, Innovation and Creativity of Respondents .......................................................................................................................... 55 4.2.4 Improvement in Student Performance and Grades ...................................................... 58 4.2.5 Application of skills gained in regular studies ............................................................. 59 4.2.6 Change Career Interest of Students .............................................................................. 60 4.2.7 Influence on Respondents’ Choice of Course at University ........................................ 62 4.2.8 Overall Perceived Effects Analysis of the training Program ....................................... 62 4.2.9 Views of students on whether they would recommend the program to others ............ 63 4.3 4.4 Research Objective 2: Challenges faced by STEM training programs in Ghana ......... 64 4.3.2 Areas of Improvement for STEM training programs .................................................. 72 4.4 Research Objective 3: Sustainability measures and level of collaboration among stakeholders............................................................................................................................... 73 4.4.1 Contribution of Trainers to Sustainability of STEM Training Programs .................... 73 4.4.2 Trainer’s view on how to financially sustain STEM training programs ...................... 74 4.4.3 Collaboration with External stakeholders .................................................................... 75 4.4.5 Evaluation of STEM Training Programs ..................................................................... 76 x Trainers’ Mode of Evaluation ............................................................................................... 78 4.4.6 Mechanism for Long Term- Follow up ....................................................................... 79 4.4.7 Recommendations to enhance effectiveness of STEM Training Programmes ............ 80 4.5 Discussion of Findings ........................................................................................................ 81 4.6 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................... 84 CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 85 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................ 85 5.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 85 5.1 Summary of Findings .......................................................................................................... 85 5.1.1 Program Effectiveness and Impact Evaluation ............................................................ 86 5.1.2 Systemic Challenges and Institutional Barriers ........................................................... 87 5.1.3 Sustainability and Collaborative Mechanisms ............................................................. 88 5.2 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 89 5.3 Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 91 5.4 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 93 5.5 Suggestions for Future Research ........................................................................................ 94 xi REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 95 xii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Comparison of Theories ................................................................................................ 34 Figure 2: Gender Distribution of Students .................................................................................... 46 Figure 3: Gender of Distribution of Trainers ................................................................................ 47 Figure 4: Duration for STEM Training Programs ........................................................................ 50 Figure 5: Training Duration .......................................................................................................... 51 Figure 6: STEM Training Programs Improve Performance and Grades ...................................... 58 Figure 7: Application of Knowledge from Program ..................................................................... 59 Figure 8: STEM Training Programs Improves Performance and Grades ..................................... 64 xiii LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Age distribution of students ......................................................................................... 45 Table 4.2: Age distribution of trainers .......................................................................................... 46 Table 4.3: Trainers’ level of education ......................................................................................... 48 Table 4.4: Years of experience as STEM trainers ........................................................................ 48 Table 4.5: STEM training programs students have participated in .............................................. 49 Table 4.6: Students’ views on the STEM Training Program ........................................................ 52 Table 4.7: Students’ views on whether STEM Training improves their knowledge .................... 53 Table 4.8: View on enhancement of practical skills of respondents in STEM fields .................... 54 Table 4.9: Perceived Effect of STEM Programmes ..................................................................... 55 Table 4.10: Views of Students on the Perceived Effects of the STEM Program ......................... 56 Table 4.11: STEM program increased the interest in pursuing a STEM career .......................... 60 Table 4.12: Interest in STEM Programs ...................................................................................... 61 Table 4.13: Informed Participant’s decision in selecting university courses............................... 62 Table 4.14: Trainers’ views on the extent to which the programs achieve their intended objectives ....................................................................................................................................................... 63 xiv Table 4.15: Students’ views on adequacy of training materials ................................................... 65 Table 4.16: Students’ views on the lack of STEM-dedicated Infrastructure ................................ 66 Table 4.17: Trainers’ views on the lack of STEM-dedicated Infrastructure ................................ 67 Table 4.18: Students’ views on insufficient time allocated to STEM training Programs ............. 68 Table 4.19: Trainers’ views on insufficient time allocated to STEM training Programs ............. 69 Table 4.20: Trainers’ views on lack of support from schools during trainings ............................ 70 Table 4.21: Students’ views on the challenges STEM training programmes encounter ............. 71 Table 4.22: Trainers’ views on the challenges STEM training programmes encounter .............. 72 Table 4.23: Aspects of STEM training programs in Ghana need the most improvement ............ 73 Table 4.24: Contribution to sustainability .................................................................................... 74 Table 4.25: What is needed to financially sustain these STEM programs ................................... 75 Table 4.26: Collaboration with other stakeholders ....................................................................... 76 Table 4.27: Evaluation of Program by Students ........................................................................... 77 Table 4.28: How was the evaluation done? .................................................................................. 78 Table 4.29: How do you as a trainer assess the impact of your training on students? ................. 79 Table 4.30: Are there mechanisms in place for long-term follow-up ........................................... 80 xv Table 4.31: Specific recommendations for enhancing the impact of these programs .................. 81 xvi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS STEM Science Technology Engineering Mathematics CSR Corporate Social Responsibility OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization TPACK Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge AIMS African Institute for Mathematical Sciences SHS Senior High School IFC International Finance Corporation MoFEP Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning KIC Kosmos Innovation Center NBSSI National Board for Small Scale Industries SME Small Medium Enterprises TVET Technical Vocational Education Training ICT Information Communication Technology 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background to the Study In today's rapidly evolving technological landscape, proficiency in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) disciplines has become a crucial driver for the development of individuals, organizations, and nations as a whole. Scholars have emphasized the value of STEM education in developing critical thinking, problem-solving, and analytical skills, which are essential for success in various fields (Hrabowski 2019). The National Science Foundation (2020) affirms this by arguing that STEM education prepares students for the 21st- century workforce, where problem-solving and adaptability are highly valued. Similarly, Bardoe et al. (2023) argue that STEM-based knowledge and skills dominate the global economy and as a result, have gained massive global acceptance. The African Union’s Agenda 2063 recognizes the strategic role STEM education plays in accelerating Africa’s development, stating that converting the continent’s youth dividend into a highly skilled STEM workforce by 2050 can be a game-changer (African Union, 2015). This push is driving countries across the continent to ensure that their human capital base is equipped with the requisite STEM skills to stay competitive. It is in line with this that African countries like South Africa, Kenya, Rwanda, Nigeria, Morocco and Ghana among others have put at their forefront the promotion and strengthening of STEM education and training. 2 In South Africa, the government has made significant strides in promoting STEM education through initiatives such as the National Development Plan 2030 (National Planning Commission, 2012). The country has also established specialized STEM schools such as the Oppenheimer Memorial Trust (OMT) schools to provide advanced STEM education to learners from underprivileged communities (Oppenheimer Memorial Trust, 2021). Kenya has also placed strong emphasis on STEM education with programs like STEM Education project improving the quality of STEM teaching and learning at Secondary Schools (World Bank, 2019). The government also launched initiatives like the “Sheza” program to promote girls’ participation in STEM, fields (AIMS, n.d.). Rwanda launched the “Miss Geek” competition to encourage girls’ participation in STEM alongside its Regional Centre of Excellence in Biomedical Engineering and eHealth (CEBE) program to offer specialized training in biomedical engineering and boost STEM education (UNESCO, 2017). Nigeria has recognized the importance of STEM education for its rapidly growing economy and has launched initiatives like the STEM Education Fund, which provides funding for STEM-related programs (Federal Ministry of Education, Nigeria, 2021). The country has also established specialized STEM centres, such as the National Biotechnology Development Agency (NABDA) Bioresources Development Centre (NABDA, n.d.). Similarly, Ghana has made significant strides in advancing STEM education. The country has implemented National STEM Education Policy to improve STEM teaching and learning at all levels of education (Ministry of Education, Ghana, 2020). The country has invested over GHS 700 3 million in research and book allowances, established twenty (20) STEM centres and opened ten (10) new model STEM schools, with 7 (seven) currently operational. Ghana has also launched initiatives like the Girls in ICT program to bridge the national gender gap in ICT and female participation in STEM fields (UNESCO, 2019). A report by the International Finance Corporation (IFC) projects that there will be over 230 million digital jobs in Sub-Saharan Africa by 2030 with Ghana alone offering 9 million of these jobs. Meeting this demand will require the providing 20 million training opportunities to citizens by 2030 (IFC, 2019). However, the National Budget Statement of the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (MoFEP) in 2021 revealed that Ghana’s economy faces challenges in competing globally in the STEM domain, and as a result, must take the necessary steps to ensure that it becomes a major STEM education hub (Bardoe et al. 2023). The IFC report also advocates for educational providers to partner with technology companies to expand their portfolios as part of efforts in contributing to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4; Quality Education (IFC, 2019). It against this backdrop that corporate organizations, as part of their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives, embark on STEM trainings to compliment government’s STEM education efforts with the aim of boosting the digital skills capacity of citizens. Some of these STEM training programs include; MasterCard Foundation Scholars Program: The Mastercard Foundation Scholars Program at the African Institute for Mathematical Sciences (AIMS) Ghana is an initiative that seeks to engage students in Junior and Senior High Schools to debunk misconceptions surrounding Mathematics and STEM education. Scholars from the program, comprising 33 individuals from 10 African 4 countries, visit these schools and utilize various teaching methods, including games, to showcase the practical applications of Mathematics and inspire students to embrace these subjects and pursue careers in STEM-related fields (Zeleza, 2019). Robotic Workshops and Competitions: These initiatives focus on promoting robotics education and engaging students in hands-on STEM activities. It organizes workshops, camps, and competitions that allow students to design, build, and program robots. Participants learn about robotics principles, programming, and engineering concepts through practical projects and challenges (Mensah, 2019). Girls Can Code: This initiative specifically targets young women, aiming to bridge the gender gap in STEM fields. It offers coding and digital skills training programs tailored to the needs and interests of female participants. The curriculum covers various programming languages, web development, mobile app development, and other technological skills. The program also provides mentorship and career guidance to encourage more women to pursue STEM careers (Kwakye, 2021). Huawei Digital Skills Training: Offering digital skills (STEM) training to Senior high school girls at rural areas in courses like Cyber Security and Privacy Protection, Data Storage and Transfer and Coding across various educational institutions. This initiative is aimed at bridging the digital literacy gap and empowering them to improve their prospects with digital skills (Graphic Online, 2022). MTN Bright Scholarship and ICT Training: This program offers scholarships and ICT training programs to deserving students pursuing STEM-related degrees. Additionally, the ICT training component equips students with practical skills in areas such as software development, 5 cybersecurity, data analysis, and networking through hands-on training and industry-relevant projects (Quartey, 2020). NBSSI Entrepreneurship and Technology Training: The National Board for Small Scale Industries (NBSSI) provides entrepreneurship and technology training programs to support small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Ghana. These programs include workshops on technology adoption, digital marketing, and entrepreneurship skills development. Participants learn how to leverage technology to enhance their business operations, reach new markets, and stay competitive in the digital age (Quartey, 2020). Tullow Educate to Innovate Program: Tullow Ghana as part of its socio-economic policy has established the Pre-Tertiary STEM Programme, also known as ‘Educate to Innovate with STEM’. The programme supports 2000 students from 10 senior high schools in Ghana’s Western Region with after-school, mentorship and teaching support to equip and prepare students for their science exams, and encouraging them to choose sciences at the second cycle level right through to university (Tullow Oil, 2022). Despite the proliferation of STEM training programs in Ghana, there is a lack of research evaluating their effectiveness, with reference to its sustainability, long-term impact and influence on students' educational and career choices. 1.1 Problem Statement Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) education has played a crucial role in developing a skilled workforce while fostering innovation which are essential drivers of economic growth and global competitiveness (Charette, 2013). Recognizing its importance of STEM education, the Government of Ghana, in collaboration with the Ministry of Education, Ghana 6 Education Service, and other stakeholders, have invested significantly in improving its quality, particularly at the Senior High School level. A study by Bardoe et al. (2023) reveals that GHS 674.6 million has been spent in enhancing teaching and learning of STEM across the country. Ghana's focus on STEM education is driven by the need to prepare its workforce for the demands of the 21st-century economy, address societal challenges, and position the nation as a competitive player in the global marketplace. STEM skills are increasingly vital for industries such as agriculture, healthcare, energy, and information technology, which are key sectors for Ghana's development agenda. To complement the effort of government, various corporate organizations have developed initiatives to promote the interest of students in STEM fields particularly among those in rural communities, to help bridge the digital divide. However, despite these investments made by corporate organizations in STEM, there is a lack of effective evaluation mechanisms to assess the impact of these training programs (Asante, 2019). This gap makes it challenging to determine whether these initiatives are successfully equipping participants with the necessary skills, knowledge, and competencies to excel in STEM-related fields and contribute to the nation’s development goals. It is in line with this that the study seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of STEM training programs implemented by corporate organizations in Ghana. As Caffarella and Daffron (2013) emphasize, "Evaluation provides data that can be used to enhance programs and ensure they are meeting the needs of learners and stakeholders". By evaluating these STEM training programs, this study aims to generate insight that will inform decision-making regarding program improvements and sustainability. Furthermore, the findings will contribute to the broader understanding of the 7 effectiveness of corporate-sponsored STEM initiatives in Ghana, guiding future efforts to promote STEM education and training in the country. 1.2 General Objective The general objective of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of STEM training programmes in Ghana with specific references to training by corporate organizations in the country. 1.3 Specific Objectives The specific objective of this research is to: i. To assess the impact of STEM training programs on participants' knowledge, skills, and attitudes towards STEM fields. ii. To identify the challenges and barriers faced by STEM training programs in Ghana. iii. To explore the sustainability measures in place for STEM training programs and their long- term viability and determine the level of collaboration among stakeholders (government, organizations, academic institutions) in implementing STEM training programs. 1.4 Research Questions i. What has been the impact of STEM Training programs on participants’ knowledge, skills and attitudes towards the STEM fields? ii. What are the challenges faced by STEM training programs in Ghana? iii. What sustaining measures have been put in place to enhance the long-term viability of STEM training programs and the level of collaboration among stakeholders (government, academic institutions) in implementing STEM training programs? 8 1.5 Significance of the Study STEM education is crucial for fostering innovation, economic growth, and global competitiveness. This study will provide insights into the effectiveness of STEM training programs in Ghana by corporate institutions which can inform policies and strategies that will have long-term impact on beneficiaries with appropriate measures adopted to enhance its sustainability. In Ghana, organizations and stakeholders invest significant resources in STEM training programs. This study will provide valuable feedback on the effectiveness of these investments, which can guide future resource allocation and decision-making processes. Finally, by identifying lapses, challenges, barriers, and best practices, this study can offer recommendations to improve the design, delivery, and implementation of STEM training programs, ensuring they achieve their intended outcomes more effectively. 1.6 Scope of the Study In enhancing the relevance and timeliness of the findings, the study will focus on STEM training programs implemented by corporate organizations within the past 2-4 years. It will assess the following aspects of the program; sustainability measures, participant outcomes (impact on their skills, know and career choices), and stakeholder collaborations. With reference to the target participants, the study will engage university students, to inquire whether the courses they are pursuing now have any relation with STEM training programs they engaged in at senior high school level. 9 1.7 Organization of the Study The study will be organized into the following chapters: Chapter 1: Introduction will provide an overview of the research, including the background, problem statement, research objectives, research questions, significance of the study, scope, and organization of the study. Chapter 2: Literature Review will present a comprehensive review of relevant literature on STEM education, the importance of STEM training programs, challenges in STEM education, and the effectiveness of STEM initiatives in Ghana and other countries. It will also discuss theoretical frameworks related to program evaluation and effectiveness. Chapter 3: Research Methodology will describe the research design, approach, data collection methods, sampling techniques, data analysis procedures, and ethical considerations. Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Findings will present the analysis of the collected data, including descriptive statistics, and any other relevant analytical techniques. The findings will be organized according to the research objectives and questions. Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations will summarize the main conclusions drawn from the study and provide recommendations for enhancing the effectiveness of STEM training programs in Ghana. It will also outline suggestions for future research in this area. It will include References, which will list all the sources cited in the study, adhering to the appropriate referencing style (e.g., APA,) and Appendices which will include supplementary materials, such as survey instruments, data collection tools, and any other relevant supporting documents. 10 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter examines the theoretical and conceptual foundation for evaluating the effectiveness of STEM training programs sponsored by corporate organizations in Ghana. The review focuses on the System Theory as the primary framework, complemented by Kirkpatrick’s four model and the Sustainability Theory in comprehensively assessing the effectiveness of STEM training programs. The combination allows for a holistic evaluation that considers both psychological aspects of learning and practical outcomes. Empirical review is also presented in this chapter as well as the lessons learnt from the empirical studies. 2.1 Theoretical Review 2.1.1 Theories of Training and Training effectiveness Different learning theories are reflected in the design and implementation of different training and development events. The implications for training and development are captured by the Systems Theory (Katz & Kahn, 1996), Kirkpatrick’s Theory (1994) and Sustainability Theory of evaluating training effectiveness and long-term sustainability. 11 2.1.2 The Systems Theory The systems theory may be defined as a group of interrelated and interdependent parts of processes operating in sequence, according to a predetermined plan, to achieve a goal or series of goals (Bryan, 1990). A training system is therefore a set of parts coordinated to accomplish the goal of helping individuals gain competence in the present or future work through the acquisition and development of appropriate skills, knowledge and attitudes. Like any other open system, it consists of four main elements: inputs from the environment, a conversion process, output and feedback (Dixon, 1996). From Holcomb’s (1993) perspective, trainees form the basic input together with other resources such as physical facilities, reading materials and resource persons. The design and conduct of the training programme constitute the process and the trainees are the output. The evaluation of the training course is the feedback on the basis of which the training may be judged as effective or ineffective, and, where necessary, improvements are made in subsequent courses. When applied to corporate-sponsored STEM training programs in Ghana, the system's objective might be to enhance STEM skills among SHS students and potentially create a pipeline of future STEM professionals. Inputs would include SHS students, corporate trainers, curriculum, and resources such as computer equipment. The output would be students with improved STEM skills and awareness, while feedback would involve measuring the program's effectiveness against predetermined standards. For example, a STEM training program sponsored by a multinational technology company in Ghana might have the following components: 12 Inputs: SHS students from selected schools, corporate STEM professionals as trainers, and specially designed curriculum. Process: A series of weekend workshops over a school term, focusing on coding, data protection and privacy protection, robotics, and data analysis. Outputs: Students with enhanced STEM skills, increased interest in STEM careers, and completed projects. Feedback: Pre and post-training assessments, student feedback, teacher observations, and long- term tracking of participants' academic choices. Figari (1994) posits that a systems approach to training encompasses the entire environment in which the training occurs, including the identification of training needs and other crucial elements such as establishing training objectives, designing and implementing the training program, and evaluating its effectiveness. When applied to corporate-sponsored STEM training programs in Ghana, this approach considers the current landscape of STEM education in Ghanaian Senior High Schools (SHS), the sponsoring corporations' objectives, and national educational priorities (McMahon & Carter, 1990). For example, the Ministry of Education of Ghana has established a goal to enhance STEM skills among SHS students nationwide. This governmental initiative has significantly shaped the development and execution of corporate-sponsored STEM programs. These programs are now being tailored to align closely with the Ministry's focus, ensuring that corporate efforts complement and reinforce national educational strategies. Casio (2019) notes that improper assessment can lead to training that is irrelevant to actual requirements. This can instigate a situation where training given has no relevance to the actual requirements of the participants’ needs. The design of the training programme depends on its 13 objectives as well as the level of competencies of requirement of the participants and the nature of learning they are expected to acquire. Unless the training objectives are clear, no purposeful evaluation is possible as evaluation can be done only in terms of the predetermined objectives. Noel et al., (2017) affirm this by indicating that the design of corporate-sponsored STEM training programs should depend on clear objectives and the required competencies of participants. According to Cole (2002), a systems approach to training follows a logical sequence of networked activities commencing with the establishment of a policy and the resources to sustain it. This is sequentially followed by an assessment of training needs, specifying training objectives, specifying target population who should be trained, designing training programme, implementing training and evaluating. Evaluation of corporate-sponsored STEM training programs in Ghana is essential for continuous improvement and demonstrating impact. This evaluation should be done in terms of predetermined objectives (Armstrong & Taylor, 2020). For instance, if a program aims to increase the number of SHS students choosing STEM subjects for their tertiary education, evaluation metrics might include the percentage of participants who select STEM courses in university applications. 2.1.3 Limitations of the Systems Theory While the Systems Theory provides a comprehensive framework for evaluating STEM training programs, it is not without limitations. One potential challenge is the complexity of the educational environment in Ghana, which may make it difficult to isolate the effects of corporate-sponsored programs from other factors influencing students' STEM skills and interests. Additionally, the long-term nature of some desired outcomes (such as career choices) may pose challenges for timely evaluation and program adjustment. 14 2.1.4 Kirkpatrick’s Four-Level Evaluation Models To complement the Systems Theory and address some of its limitations, Kirkpatrick's Four-Level Model offers a structured approach to evaluating STEM training programs in Ghana (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). This model provides a comprehensive framework for assessing educational, training and learning program outcomes ranging from immediate reactions to long-term impacts. According to the model, evaluation should always begin with level one and move sequentially through the subsequent levels. The four levels are: Reaction: Measures of Participant Satisfaction and Engagement Level 1 assesses the initial reaction of the trainees to the training programme (Kirkpatrick, 1994). It evaluates participants’ immediate satisfaction with the program content, delivery methods, and overall experience, usually through questionnaires, surveys and focus group discussions. Rajeev, Madan and Jayarajan, (2009) attest that Level 1 employs attitude questionnaires to measure the trainee’s perceptions, administered after the program or after each session of it. For STEM programs this could include a survey rating their enjoyment of the activities, clarity of instructions, and their interest in future STEM initiatives. Learning: Assesses the Knowledge and Skill Acquisition Level 2 evaluates whether the objectives of the programme have been met by measuring skills and knowledge gained (Gordon, 1992). Assessment methods include criterion-referenced tests, pre- tests/post-tests, observation, and interviews. Mishra (2003) emphasizes the importance of combining pre-tests with post-tests to validate knowledge gained. In their absence self-assessment 15 tests can be used although Rajeev et al. (2009) assert that self-evaluation tests are less objective than criterion-referenced tests. Behaviour: Evaluates the Application of STEM Skills Level 3 measures the degree to which participants apply their newly acquired knowledge and skills in their academic work and daily lives. It employs both formal methods, such as testing and informal techniques, such as observations, surveys and interviews to evaluate the transfer of learning from the training environment to real-world situations. For example, teachers might observe whether students who participated in a programming workshop are now more likely to use coding to solve problems in their science classes. Results: Measures the Long-Term Impacts of the Training on Broader Objectives This level measures the final results of your training which includes broader and long-term impacts on the objectives. In the context of STEM training, it will evaluate the long-term, systemic impacts of the STEM training program on educational outcomes, career trajectories, and the overall STEM landscape in Ghana. It assesses whether the program contributes to achieving larger objectives, such as increasing STEM enrolment in universities or improving gender balance in STEM fields. 2.1.5 Limitations to Kirkpatrick’s Model While Kirkpatrick's model offers a comprehensive framework for evaluating STEM training programs in Ghana, its application may face several challenges. Resource constraints in developing educational systems can make implementing all four levels, especially level 4, costly and time-consuming. The model may require further adaptation to fully align with Ghanaian 16 educational norms and values, ensuring cultural relevance. Long-term tracking of participants' progress over extended periods may prove challenging in the Ghanaian context, particularly due to potential limitations in data collection and management systems. Additionally, isolating the specific impact of STEM programs from other influencing factors can be difficult, potentially complicating the attribution of long-term outcomes solely to the training interventions. 2.1.6 Sustainability Theory The Sustainability Theory, as proposed by Bossel (1999), adds a crucial dimension to the evaluation of STEM training programs in Ghana by emphasizing the long-term viability and impact of interventions. This theory complements the Systems Theory and Kirkpatrick's Model by focusing on the enduring effects of training initiatives beyond their immediate implementation. In the context of corporate-sponsored STEM training programs, the Sustainability Theory provides a framework for assessing the lasting impact of these initiatives on the country's educational landscape and workforce development. It encourages evaluators to look beyond short-term outcomes and consider how these programs contribute to the sustainable development of STEM education and careers in Ghana. One key aspect of sustainability in STEM training programs is the continued engagement of students with STEM subjects beyond the duration of the program. Laal and Salamati (2012) argue that sustainable learning initiatives should foster a lifelong interest in the subject matter. For instance, a corporate-sponsored robotics program might be evaluated not just on immediate learning outcomes, but also on how it influences participants' subject choices in secondary school and university, as well as their extracurricular STEM activities. 17 Another important consideration is the integration of program elements into regular school curricula. Sustainable STEM training programs should aim to leave a lasting impact on the educational system. As Tilbury (2011) notes, education for sustainable development requires systemic changes in teaching and learning. In the Ghanaian context, this might involve assessing how techniques or technologies introduced in corporate-sponsored programs are subsequently adopted by schools. The development of local capacity to continue STEM training without ongoing corporate support is another crucial aspect of sustainability. Fadeeva and Mochizuki (2010) emphasize the importance of building local expertise and resources for long-term sustainability. A sustainable STEM program might, for instance, include a "train the trainer" component where Ghanaian educators are equipped to continue the program independently. The long-term impact on STEM career choices and Ghana's STEM workforce is perhaps the most significant indicator of a program's sustainability. As Arora et al. (2020) point out, sustainable STEM education should ultimately contribute to national development goals. Evaluators might track program participants over several years to assess their educational and career trajectories. For example, a longitudinal study might examine whether students who participated in a corporate- sponsored STEM program are more likely to pursue STEM degrees and careers compared to their peers. 2.1.7 Challenges of Sustainability Theory Evaluating sustainability presents its own challenges such as issues with long-term tracking of outcomes which require significant resources and commitment. Mayne (2001) notes that, attributing long-term impacts solely to specific training programs can be difficult, given the varied factors that influence educational and career choices. 18 2.1.8 Strengths of the Sustainability Theory Despite these challenges, incorporating the Sustainability Theory into the evaluation of STEM training programs in Ghana provides valuable insights into their lasting impact. By considering sustainability alongside the Systems Theory and Kirkpatrick's Model, evaluators can develop a more comprehensive understanding of program effectiveness. This holistic approach not only assesses immediate learning outcomes but also examines how these programs contribute to the sustainable development of STEM education and careers in Ghana. 2.1.9 The Synergy between Systems Theory, Kirkpatrick’s Four Model & Sustainability Theory The Systems Theory, Kirkpatrick's Four-Level Evaluation Model, and the Sustainability Theory, when used together, create a robust framework for evaluating training programs across various fields. The Systems Theory provides a comprehensive view of the training process, considering inputs, processes, outputs, and feedback. However, it lacks specificity in measuring individual outcomes. Kirkpatrick's Model provides a structured approach to evaluating specific aspects of training effectiveness from immediate reactions to long-term behavioural changes. This detailed, level-by-level analysis compensates for the broader perspective of the Systems Theory, ensuring both macro and micro aspects are assessed. Each theory's strengths effectively compensate for the others' weaknesses. While Kirkpatrick's Model excels at measuring immediate to medium-term outcomes, it may fall short in capturing long-term, systemic impacts. The Sustainability Theory fills this gap by focusing on enduring 19 effects and integration into broader systems. It extends the evaluation timeframe, considering factors like continued engagement, curriculum integration, and capacity development. The Systems Theory ensures that all aspects of the training process are considered, from resource allocation to feedback mechanisms. Kirkpatrick's Model provides a clear structure for measuring outcomes at various levels, from participant satisfaction to organizational results. By leveraging the complementary strengths of these theories, evaluators can develop a comprehensive understanding of training effectiveness that spans from immediate reactions to long-term, systemic impacts, providing valuable insights for continuous improvement and strategic decision-making in training program design and implementation. 2.2 Review of Concepts 2.2.1 The Concept of Training In the ever-evolving landscape of professional development, training stands out as a cornerstone for individual growth and organizational success. According to Goldstein and Ford (2002), training is "the systematic acquisition of skills, rules, concepts, or attitudes that result in improved performance in another environment”. It encapsulates a structured process designed to bridge the gap between current capabilities and desired performance levels. Building on this foundation, Cole (2002) emphasizes that training should be directed towards the acquisition of specific knowledge and skills for the purpose of an occupation or task. By engaging in training, individuals can enhance their competence and performance, ultimately contributing to their success in their chosen fields. 20 The implementation of training has evolved significantly, moving beyond traditional classroom- based instruction. Noe (2020) highlights the integration of technology through e-learning platforms, virtual reality simulations, and blended learning approaches which enable more flexible and personalized learning experiences. This evolution as Salas et al. (2012) argue, reflects the changing nature of work itself, where adaptability and continuous learning have become paramount. Stone (2000) positions training as having a complementary role in accelerating learning, advocating for its use in situations that require a more directed, expert-led approaches. This perspective underscores the importance of targeted and focused training interventions that address specific needs and gaps in knowledge or skills. Armstrong (2006) further develops this concept by characterizing training as the use of systematic and planned instruction activities to promote learning, introducing the concept of “learning-based training." Building on this systematic view, Grossman and Salas (2011) propose a comprehensive model emphasizing needs assessment, design, delivery, and evaluation as crucial components for ensuring effective training transfer to the workplace. 2.2.1.1 The Training Process Training is a crucial process that requires careful planning and execution typically following a systematic approach with interconnected steps that contribute to overall program effectiveness (Beardwell & Holden, 1993; Gordon, 1991; Rajeev et al., 2009). This comprehensive process encompasses several key stages designed to maximize learning and organizational development. 21 Training policies and resources: Training policies serve as fundamental guidelines for that ensure efficient resources allocation and equal training opportunities. Armstrong (1996) emphasizes that these training policies reflect an organization’s philosophy towards employee development and underscore the importance placed on continuous learning and skills enhancement. Determination of training needs: The needs assessment stage involves a multi-level analysis of organizational, functional, and individual levels. (Cole, 2002) suggests examining performance gaps and conducting surveys, to identify areas where training can make a significant impact. Researchers like Teskey (2005) recommend focusing on variances between success and failure while Fullard (2006) advocates for individual analysis through interviews, observations, and performance records. Establishing training objectives and training plan: Following needs analysis, clear training is established to define specific learner outcomes. Tamkin and Yarnall (2002) stress the importance of integrating training objectives with performance and reward management. Jones, George and Hill (2000) outline a comprehensive planning process that includes developing detailed lesson plans, selecting appropriate methods, and preparing trainers. Implementation of training plan: This critical stage involves designing specific training lessons, selecting appropriate training methods, and preparing qualified trainers. Each training session requires a meticulously crafted lesson plan with content outlines, activities, and time allocations. Chambers (2005) emphasizes the significance of selecting and preparing personnel capable of executing training objectives. Evaluation and Feedback: The final stage assesses the training program's effectiveness in meeting its objectives, providing crucial insights for future improvements. This step ensures continuous refinement of training approaches and validates the investment in human capital development. 22 In conclusion, the training process is a systematic approach that involves careful planning, needs assessment, objective setting, and implementation. Each step in this process is crucial for ensuring effective and purposeful training outcomes. 2.2.1.2 The Benefits of Training Training plays a crucial role in personal and professional development, offering numerous advantages across various contexts. As highlighted by Ajibade (1993) and Arikewuyo (1999), it serves as a valuable avenue for acquiring new knowledge and skills. Obisi (1996) emphasizes that training prepares individuals for achievement and overall development, equipping them with the necessary competencies to perform tasks efficiently. This preparation extends beyond specific job requirements, contributing to broader personal growth. From an organizational perspective, Cole (2002) notes that training can significantly enhance operational efficiency. By reducing errors, minimizing equipment misuse, and mitigating risks, it often leads to cost savings and improved resource utilization. Oguntimehin (2001) points out that it also helps develop a range of competencies, including, technical, human and managerial skills for the furtherance of individual and organizational goals. It also plays a vital role in change management, fostering adaptability and resilience in the face of new challenges. Training offers intangible benefits as well. Rajeev, Madan, and Jayarajan (2009) observe that it can provide recognition and opportunities for career advancement, contributing to personal satisfaction and achievement. In today's competitive environment, Swist (2002) identifies training as a key factor in maintaining a competitive edge. By keeping individuals and organizations current with industry advancements, 23 it promotes innovation and excellence. In essence, training is a multifaceted tool that enhances skills, boosts efficiency, facilitates change adaptation, and drives both individual and organizational growth. Its value as a catalyst for improvement and advancement remains consistent across various domains. 2.2.2 The Concept of Evaluation Evaluation is a systematic method for collecting, analysing, and using information to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of projects, policies, and programs. Learning Point Associates (2010) emphasizes that evaluation aims to answer critical questions about the intended impact of initiatives for stakeholders in both public and private sectors. The notion of answering questions about efficiency and effectiveness connotes a feedback loop from the evaluator to the posers of the questions. Ryan and Cousins (2009) highlight that the primary goal of evaluation is to provide useful feedback to various audiences, including sponsors, donors, administrators, and other constituencies. The ultimate objective is to influence decision-making and policy formulation through empirically-driven insights. However, the impact of evaluation is not always immediate, as findings may have delayed influence when more conducive conditions arise. The OECD (2006) notes a consistent purpose across institutions: assessing the effectiveness or efficiency of programs, projects, training methods, and policies. Nicol and Macfarlane (2006) define evaluation as determining the extent to which program objectives are realized through programmed activities. 24 Scheerens, Cees and Thomas (2003) distinguish that evaluation itself is a process of reasonably assessing and drawing conclusions about a program, rather than prescribing its goals. This approach requires careful consideration of key interconnected concepts: Reliability: Reliability focuses on the consistency of measurement. Kalleghan and Stufflebearn (2003) describe it as the ability to reproduce the same results using identical methods, regardless of the evaluator. Rossi et al. (2004) emphasize that reliable measures provide more statistically powerful and credible findings. Validity: Validity centres on the suitability of evaluation techniques for their intended purpose. Potter (2006) defines it as the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. Ryan and Cousins (2009) note that validity can be subjective, often determined by stakeholder acceptance. Sensitivity: Rossi et al. (2004) stress that evaluation instruments must be sensitive enough to detect potential changes in the program's impact. An insensitive instrument may obscure the program's true effects by including irrelevant or inappropriately designed measurement items. Evaluation process: Program evaluation may be conducted at several stages during a program’s lifetime. Each of these stages raises different questions to be answered by the evaluator, and correspondingly different evaluation approaches are needed. Rossi et al. (2004) suggest the five kinds of assessment, which may be appropriate at different stages. The five assessments are the assessment of the need for the program, assessment of program design and logic/theory, assessment of the program’s cost and efficiency, assessment of how the program is being implemented, and assessment of the program’s outcome or impact or what it has actually achieved. 25 In conclusion, evaluation is a complex, multi-dimensional process that requires rigorous methodological approaches to provide meaningful insights into program effectiveness and potential improvements. 2.2.3 Conceptualization of STEM Education and STEM Training The relationship between STEM education and STEM training is characterized by a nuanced, interconnected nature, with subtle distinctions and significant overlap in their fundamental objectives and approaches. 2.2.3.1Definition of STEM Education Breiner et al. (2012) define STEM education as "the study of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics disciplines, with an emphasis on integration across these four fields for in-depth exploration of STEM pathways." This definition underscores the interdisciplinary essence of STEM education, highlighting the importance of holistic knowledge acquisition and cross- disciplinary understanding. Key characteristics of STEM education include: ¶ Broad foundational knowledge acquisition ¶ Interdisciplinary approach ¶ Comprehensive exploration of scientific and technological concepts ¶ Emphasis on theoretical understanding 2.2.3.2 Definition of STEM Training STEM training is distinguished by its focus on practical applications and skill development. Kloser et al. (2021) provide a comprehensive definition, describing it as "educational experiences that 26 incorporate practices, concepts, and skills from two or more STEM disciplines in an integrated, real-world context." Distinctive features of STEM training include: ¶ Practical skill development ¶ Real-world application of knowledge ¶ Hands-on learning experiences ¶ Flexible learning environments However, Vennix et al. (2018) maintains that, STEM training is not limited to formal classroom settings but can also include workshops, camps, competitions, and other informal learning environments, providing a broader view while highlighting its flexibility and adaptability to different learning contexts. 2.2.2.3 Relationship between STEM Education and Training While STEM education and STEM training have distinct emphases, they are mutually reinforcing. Education provides the foundational knowledge, while training focuses on applying that knowledge in practical contexts. This symbiotic relationship ensures that learners not only understand theoretical concepts but can also effectively implement them in real-world scenarios. The intertwined nature of STEM education and training reflects the dynamic, evolving landscape of scientific and technological learning, emphasizing both theoretical understanding and practical skill development. 27 2.2.3 Conceptualization of STEM Education and STEM Train In Ghana, STEM education has witnessed significant growth since the 2000s. The country has recognized the importance of STEM education for developing a skilled workforce and driving economic growth. Like many countries, there have been efforts in recent years to improve STEM teaching and learning at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Recent initiatives include: The 2015 ICT in Education Policy, emphasizing teacher training in digital skills and introducing ICT as a subject from primary through high school (Ministry of Education Ghana, 2015). The Education Strategic Plan 2018-2030, prioritizing improved quality of teaching and learning in STEM at all levels ((Ministry of Education, Ghana, 2018). Plans to build 35 STEM Senior High Schools and 5 STEM-based universities (Ministry of Finance Ghana, 2023). The establishment of specialized STEM schools, with 7 out of 10 proposed schools already operational (Ghanaweb, 2023). Investment in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) with 52,133 final year TVET students participating in the 2024 Certificate II Examination across Ghana compared to 32,402 participants last year (Daily Graphic, 2024. Pg28) Without pinpointing an exact timeframe, it's reasonable to say that STEM education has gained increasing prominence as a priority area in Ghana over the past 10-15 years, driven by national development plans. However, quantitative data on STEM enrolment and performance remain limited. This low percentage suggests significant room for improvement and underscores the need for increased efforts to promote STEM education and training at all levels. 28 2.2.4 Role of STEM Education and Training in Enhancing Career Goals of Students In the contemporary educational landscape, STEM education plays a pivotal role in influencing students' career aspirations and professional trajectories. Multiple research studies have highlighted the complex interplay between educational experiences and career choices, revealing significant insights into how STEM learning impacts student motivations and future career paths (Kayan-Fadlelmula et al., 2022; Sahin et al., 2020; Vooren et al., 2022). Existing research demonstrates persistent challenges in STEM career engagement, including low college enrolment rates and diminished student interest despite substantial educational investments (Chen et al., 2024). The perception of STEM professionals critically influences students' career intentions, with students more likely to pursue these fields when they view STEM professionals as intelligent, innovative, and successful (Cohen et al., 2021). Similarly, Gossen and Ivy, (2023) argue that early educational experiences emerge as a fundamental determinant of career aspirations. Primary school interactions and extracurricular STEM activities significantly contribute to building students' confidence and interest in scientific and technological disciplines. A study by Blotnicky et al. (2018) also found a correlation between STEM knowledge and the likelihood of students pursuing STEM careers. Their study, which used a quantitative survey methodology, revealed that students with high mathematics self-efficacy (MSE) and STEM knowledge were more likely to choose STEM careers. These studies collectively highlight the crucial role of STEM education and training in shaping students' career aspirations. They suggest providing early exposure to diverse STEM career opportunities, developing students' scientific and mathematical confidence, integrating informal learning 29 experiences, and offering comprehensive career information. These strategies can potentially transform students' perceptions and inspire greater participation in STEM fields. However, a notable research gap exists, with most studies predominantly focusing on Western educational contexts. This limitation underscores the need for more comprehensive research in developing countries like Ghana, where understanding local educational dynamics is crucial for tailoring effective STEM career development strategies. In conclusion, STEM education serves as a powerful catalyst in shaping students' career goals by providing knowledge, building confidence, and fostering genuine interest in scientific and technological domains. Strategic, holistic approaches that recognize the multifaceted nature of career aspiration development are essential for nurturing the next generation of STEM professionals. 2.2.5 Corporate Involvement in STEM Training in Ghana Corporations worldwide are increasingly investing in STEM training to address skills gaps and drive innovation. A study by PwC (2019) found that 79% of global CEOs are concerned about key skill availability, with international companies like IBM and Google launching targeted training initiatives to bridge this gap. While these global initiatives demonstrate the potential of corporate involvement in STEM training, their effectiveness and applicability in different cultural contexts require further investigation. In Africa, corporate STEM programs have gained significant momentum. South Africa's Sasol Inzalo Foundation has reached over 100,000 beneficiaries, while in Ghana, collaborative efforts between government and industry partners have emerged, such as training 100,000 girls in STEM- 30 related courses. However, a systematic review by Amankwah et al. (2022) found that while corporate STEM programs in Africa have shown promise in increasing STEM skills and interest, there is a lack of rigorous evaluation studies. Some notable corporate STEM training initiatives which needs rigorous evaluation in Ghana include: ¶ MTN Ghana's Digital Skills Training Program, which claims to have trained over 5,000 youth in coding and digital skills since 2018 (MTN Ghana, 2021). ¶ Kosmos Energy's Innovation Centre, providing entrepreneurship and STEM skills training to Ghanaian youth (Kosmos Energy, 2020). ¶ Tullow Educate to Innovate Program which supports 2000 students in Ghana’s Western Region with after-school, mentorship and teaching to prepare them for science exams, and encourage them to choose sciences at the second cycle level right through to university (Tullow Oil, 2022). ¶ Huawei Women in Tech training, in partnership with the Ministry of Communications which has trained over 75,000 Junior and Senior High School Girls across the country (Ministry of Communications and Digitalization, 2023). While corporate involvement in STEM training in Ghana shows promise, substantial opportunities remain for expanding and systematically evaluating these programs to enhance skills development and career opportunities. 31 2.2.6 Challenges in Implementing and Evaluating Corporate STEM Training in Ghana Ghana, like many developing countries, faces significant hurdles in implementing an effective STEM education and training ecosystem. Hebebci et al. (2022) highlight common challenges including infrastructure limitations, deficiencies in qualified teaching personnel, laboratory facilities, and financial resources. These structural constraints are compounded by outdated curricula that struggle to align with rapidly evolving technological and industrial requirements. UNESCO (2017) also identifies gender disparities and cultural biases as challenges that discourage girls and women from pursuing STEM fields. These social constraints significantly undermine efforts to develop a comprehensive and inclusive STEM workforce. Baah-Boateng (2015) points out the disconnect between educational training programs and industry needs as another fundamental challenge. Many existing programs fail to provide students with practical skills directly relevant to workforce demands, creating a substantial gap between academic preparation and professional requirements while Egyir et al., (2020) emphasis the challenge of ensuring long- term impact beyond initial implementation. Addressing these challenges requires a holistic, collaborative approach. Broman et al. (2022) emphasize the need for multi-stakeholder engagement, involving government agencies, educational institutions, and industry partners. Cappelli et al. (2019) advocate for robust evaluation methodologies and while Patton (2011) suggests ensuring comprehensive stakeholder involvement throughout program development and implementation for meaningful transformation. These challenges underscore the need for a responsive, adaptive STEM education ecosystem that can effectively prepare Ghanaian students for future workforce challenges while driving national technological innovation and economic development. 32 2.3 Empirical Review Several studies have employed diverse approaches to evaluate STEM training programs, each contributing unique perspectives to the field. Abdullah, Samupwa, and Alzaidiyeen (2009) conducted a comprehensive evaluation of teacher training programs in Namibia's Caprivi Region, utilizing a cross-sectional design that incorporated views from teachers, students, and administrative units across 43 schools. Their methodology was grounded in Kirkpatrick's (1994) four-tier model of training effectiveness, assessing reaction, learning, behaviour, and results. This theoretical framework provided a structured approach to evaluating the multifaceted impacts of the training program. The Namibian study revealed a modest 9.24% improvement in average student performance following teacher training. However, this effect was lower than anticipated and potentially confounded by external factors such as student self-motivation and after-school tutoring. The researchers employed a mix of quantitative and qualitative assessment tools, including student performance metrics, teacher self-assessments, and stakeholder interviews. While this triangulated approach enhanced the robustness of the findings, the absence of pre-test/post-test data for teachers' knowledge and skills was a limitation to the evaluation methodology. Focusing specifically on Ghana, Agyei and Voogt (2011) investigated the impact of STEM teacher training on ICT integration in mathematics lessons. Their quasi-experimental design, which incorporates pre- and post-intervention assessments, provides a stronger basis for causal inference than the cross-sectional approach used in the Namibian study. The researchers grounded their work 33 in the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework and Diffusion of Innovations Theory, offering a nuanced perspective on technology integration in education. Ameyaw and Okai (2022) contributed valuable insights into the effects of STEM education on student achievement in Ghana through their longitudinal study. By grounding their research in Expectancy-Value Theory and Social Cognitive Career Theory, they provided a robust theoretical framework for understanding both academic outcomes and career aspirations. Their use of standardized test scores, career interest inventories, and longitudinal tracking offers a comprehensive approach to assessing STEM education outcomes. Despite these valuable contributions, several gaps in the literature persist. There is a notable lack of studies examining the long-term impact of STEM training programs beyond immediate academic outcomes. While some studies have touched on contextual factors, there is a need for more in-depth exploration of how cultural, economic, and social factors influence the effectiveness of STEM training in Ghana specifically. 2.4 Conceptual Framework The evaluation of training programs is a critical component of ensuring their effectiveness and impact. A well-structured conceptual framework can provide a systematic approach to assessing these programs, guiding the evaluation process and ensuring that all relevant aspects are considered. This study integrates Systems Theory, Kirkpatrick's 4 Models, and Sustainability Theory aligning them with a systematic evaluation process. The framework is grounded in a system thinking approach, recognizing the complex interrelationships between program components, participants, and context. 34 Figure 1: Comparison of Theories The Systems Theory provides the overall structure, ensuring that all aspects of the program are considered. Kirkpatrick's Model offers a detailed approach to evaluating specific outcomes at different levels, while the Sustainability Theory ensures consideration of long-term impacts and systemic changes. The Systems Theory conceptualizes the STEM training program as an open system with interconnected components which is Input, Process, Outputs and Delivery. The Inputs involves the resources invested in the program, such as students, corporate trainers, curriculum, and physical resources (Dixon, 1996). The process represents the actual implementation of the training program, including the design and delivery of content (Holcomb, 1993). Whereas outputs represent the immediate results of the training, primarily the students who have completed the program with enhanced STEM skills and knowledge while the feedback is the crucial component which allows for continuous improvement by feeding information back into the system (Cole, 2002). 35 Nested within the Systems Theory framework is Kirkpatrick's Four-Level Evaluation Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). This model provides a structured approach to assessing the outcomes of the training at different levels thus, from immediate reactions to long-term impact. The Sustainability Theory, emphasizes the long-term viability and impact of the STEM training initiatives. It ensures that the evaluation considers not just immediate outcomes, but also the program's potential for creating lasting change in Ghana's STEM education landscape. The strength of this conceptual framework lies in its integration of robust theoretical foundations with a systematic evaluation process. Each stage of the process corresponds to elements from the theories, ensuring a comprehensive and theoretically grounded assessment of the STEM training program. By combining these theories and processes, this framework provides a holistic approach to evaluating corporate-sponsored STEM training programs in Ghana and allows for assessment of immediate outcomes, long-term impacts, and systemic changes, while also providing a mechanism for continuous improvement. 2.5 Lessons Learnt Throughout the literature, it has been emphasized that assessing the effectiveness of training programmes connotes a comparison of the effectiveness before and after the programme. The most appropriate method has been stressed to be a comparison of measures of effectiveness in a pre- test/post-test analysis. However, in the absence of such methods, other tools can be applied in a cross-sectional survey to obtain results of comparative accuracy. 36 Abdullah et al. (2009) employ a cross-sectional survey to assess the effectiveness of a training programme conducted earlier. It relied heavily on one-point in time individual ratings of changes in teachers’ skills, performance, and attitudes toward teaching. Essential lessons to be drawn from the study include the importance of stakeholder participation from the planning through to the implementation and the evaluation stages of the training programme. This is to encourage stakeholders’ input as to their actual training needs, the convenience of timing, and to discourage a narrow view on the programme from the perspective of the regulatory body involved in the planning and execution of the programme. Also, the various studies reviewed made use of diverse theoretical frameworks (e.g., Kirkpatrick's model, TPACK, Social Cognitive Career Theory) which proved valuable. By making use of relevant theories, such as Sustainability Theory, future studies can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics at play in STEM education. Finally, it is crucial to acknowledge the importance of involving multiple stakeholders (teachers, students, administrators, corporate partners) in STEM training initiatives as well as their evaluation as highlighted across the various studies. In conclusion, while existing studies demonstrate the potential positive impact of STEM training programs in Ghana and similar contexts, they also highlight the need for more rigorous, theoretically grounded, and contextually sensitive research. By addressing the identified gaps and employing more diverse and robust methodologies, future research can provide a stronger evidence base to inform STEM education policies and practices in Ghana. This enhanced understanding will be crucial in developing effective, scalable, and sustainable STEM training programs that can drive educational and economic development in the country. 37 2.6 Chapter Summary This chapter examines the importance of corporate STEM training initiatives in Ghana's educational landscape including its role in bridging educational gaps and preparing students for future careers in science and technology. As global emphasis on STEM education intensifies, the focus turns to the effectiveness and sustainability of these programs. This chapter proposes a comprehensive theoretical framework combining the Systems Theory, Kirkpatrick's Four-Level Model, and Sustainability Theory, as a robust foundation for evaluating these initiatives. Empirical evidence suggests that well-designed STEM programs can positively impact student learning and career aspirations. However, their success hinges on integration with existing educational systems, and a focus on long-term sustainability. The review also uncovers significant research gaps, including limited data on the scope and nature of corporate STEM training programs in Ghana, lack of comprehensive evaluations, and insufficient research on long-term impacts. Evaluation of these training programs is crucial for determining their effectiveness, ensuring relevance to industry needs and educational standards, assessing long-term viability, guiding continuous improvement, and justifying resource allocation. Lessons learned from empirical studies emphasize the need for culturally sensitive approaches, stakeholder collaboration, and seamless integration with existing educational frameworks. In conclusion, this review underscores the potential of corporate STEM training to contribute significantly to Ghana's technological and economic development. By addressing identified research gaps and applying robust evaluation frameworks, stakeholders can enhance the effectiveness and sustainability of these initiatives. 38 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter outlines how the research was conducted with emphasis laid on the research design, methods, and procedures employed. The chapter discusses the sampling technique and sampling size of respondents, the data collection instruments and how the data collected from respondents was analysed for this study. Additionally, ethical considerations significant to the research are discussed. 3.1 Research Approach As Creswell and Creswell (2018) asserts, a research approach encompasses the plan and procedures spanning the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis and interpretation. The importance of selecting an appropriate approach is underscored by Druckman (2005), who emphasizes that researchers must be certain about which method will yield the required information. This means that by using an inappropriate method, the researcher might not achieve the required outcome as the research approach provides the philosophical and methodological foundation guiding the researcher’s choices in data collection and analysis, ensuring consistency between research questions, methodology and results. The study adopted a quantitative research approach to systematically examine the impact, challenges, and sustainability of STEM training programs in Ghana. Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, and trends 39 (Creswell, 2014). This approach was deemed appropriate as it allows for objective measurement and statistical analysis of the phenomena under investigation, providing generalizable findings (Taherdoost, 2016). 3.2 Research Design Yin (2009) argues that research design is the logic that connects the data to be collected and the conclusion to be drawn to the research question in the study. This logical sequence ensures that the empirical data effectively addresses the research questions, maintaining the study's coherence and validity. The study employed a descriptive survey research design, which was well-suited for collecting detailed information about respondents' characteristics, behaviours, and opinions. As Creswell (2014) asserts, descriptive research provides a snapshot of a phenomenon at a specific point in time, making it ideal for understanding the perceptions and experiences of STEM program participants. This design allowed for the use of structured questionnaires to gather data systematically, facilitating statistical analysis and interpretation. 3.3 Study Setting and Scope The research was conducted at universities in Ghana that offer STEM related courses as well as secondary schools within the Greater Accra Region, Ashanti Region and the Eastern Region. These locations were chosen due to their concentration of STEM training programs and their ability to provide access to key stakeholders, including university students, corporate trainers, senior high school heads, and representatives from STEM program implementing organizations. 40 3.4 Study Population According to Davies (2007) the term population refers to the category of people about whom you intend to write in your report and from which you plan to draw your sample. The target population for this study will be include; ¶ University students who have participated in the STEM training programs ¶ Corporate-trainers responsible for designing and delivering the STEM training programs The inclusion of these diverse stakeholder groups aligns with Creswell's (2014) recommendation that researchers should leverage multiple data sources for a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study. 3.5 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques This study employed a comprehensive sampling approach to investigate STEM training programs in Ghana, encompassing a total of 282 respondents across two distinct groups. The primary sample consisted of 260 university students, with this size determined through Cochran's formula using a 95% confidence level and a 4.3% margin of error, ensuring robust statistical power for analysing student perspectives. The formula is as follows: n = Z² * p * (1-p) / e² Where, n = sample size Z = Z-score (1.96 for 95% confidence level) p = population proportion (0.5 used for maximum sample size) e = margin of error (0.043 for 4.3%) 41 Additionally, 22 corporate STEM trainers were included, with this smaller sample size reflecting the practical constraints of accessing corporate professionals for research purposes. While limited, this sample provided valuable insights from the trainer perspective. The study implemented a dual sampling strategy to capture diverse perspectives effectively. For university students, simple random sampling was employed to ensure equitable selection probability and minimize bias. This approach involved creating a comprehensive list of STEM program participants in Ghana and using a random number generator for selection, thereby enhancing the generalizability of findings (Taherdoost, 2016). In contrast, convenience sampling was utilized for corporate trainers and project coordinators at Senior High schools, acknowledging the practical challenges of accessing these professionals (Etikan et al., 2016). While this non- probability sampling method introduced potential bias, it provided a pragmatic solution for including key informants whose insights were crucial to the research. This combined sampling approach, as supported by scholars like Lindelof and Taylor (2017), provided a well-reasoned framework for participant selection. The methodology aligned with the study's descriptive design, enabling the collection of comprehensive data from both student and trainer perspectives. The integration of both probability and non-probability sampling techniques, while adhering to established statistical principles for sample size determination, created a balanced approach that addressed both theoretical rigor and practical constraints in educational research. 42 3.6 Data Collection Instrument Data for this study was collected based on the research objectives. To gather comprehensive data, this study employed surveys using questionnaires as its main data collection instrument. As defined by Check and Schutt (2012, p.160), a survey involves "the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions." This method allowed for the efficient collection of data from a diverse sample. For the survey, semi-structured questionnaires were used as instruments to collect quantitative data from students and corporate-trainees. The questionnaires made use of close ended questions where respondent chose from a distinct set of responses such as yes or no and from a multiple-choice list. The instrument was pilot-tested with a small group (n=30) to ensure reliability and validity before full deployment. 3.7 Validity and Reliability To ensure the reliability and validity of the integrated survey instrument, particularly the survey questionnaires, a pilot testing phase was conducted prior to full-scale implementation. This helped to identify and rectify issues with the questions, survey structure, and response options, enhancing the instrument's effectiveness in capturing quantitative data. 3.8 Data Collection Procedure In view of the ethics in conducting research, consent was sought from the corporate trainers and university students to carry out the study, indicating the number of participants (university 43 students) to be used as sample in the collection of the relevant data and methods to be used. When given the go ahead, questionnaires were then administered to respondents via social media. 3.9 Data Handling and Analysis Durcevic (2020) defines data analysis as “a process that relies on methods and techniques to taking raw data, mining for insights that are relevant to the business’s primary goals, and drilling down into this information to transform metrics, facts, and figures into initiatives for improvement.” This process is crucial for extracting useful information from data and making informed decisions based on it. The quantitative data collected through Likert scales and multiple-choice items were analysed using IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software. This software helped with the coding, analysis and presentation of raw data into meaningful statistics. Descriptive statistics were then generated through SPSS, to paint a broad picture of the findings with inferential statistics also used, where appropriate. These statistical analyses helped identify significant trends, correlations, and potential causal relationships within the data. 3.10 Ethical Issues Throughout the research process, ethical considerations were given utmost importance to protect the rights and privacy of all respondents. All respondents were provided with detailed information about the study including the purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits of the study and asked to provide informed consent prior to data collection. 44 Confidentiality was maintained throughout the research process, and respondents were given the right to withdraw at any time. Personal identifiers were removed from the data, with all information collected handled with strict confidentiality. Additionally, the sampling strategy and overall research design were submitted for approval to the appropriate institutional review board prior to implementation. 3.11 Chapter Summary This chapter has outlined the research methodology employed in the study. The descriptive survey research design, provided a comprehensive understanding of the impact of these programs. Rigorous sampling techniques, data analysis procedures, and ethical considerations have been detailed to ensure the study's validity, reliability, and adherence to research ethics. The proposed methodology is designed to address the research questions effectively and contribute meaningful insights to the field of STEM education in Ghana. 45 CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.0 Introduction This chapter consists of the presentation of findings of the study. The discussion starts with the demographics of respondents with research findings discussed in the second part based on the various research objectives. 4.1 Demographic Data The demographic characteristics of respondents studied were gender, age, level of education and field years of experience of trainers and students. These were studied in order to provide a background profile of respondents in the study in. Table 4.1 shows the age range of respondents engaged in the study. Out of 260 respondents, a majority 170 (65%) are aged 22 and above, while a smaller proportion 90 (35%) fall within the 18–21 age bracket. Table 4.1: Age distribution of students Age Frequency Percent 18-21 90 35 22 and above 170 65 Total 260 100 Source: Primary data from the field (2024) This data, based on a sample size of 260 respondents, suggests that STEM training programs in Ghana predominantly attract a more mature audience. This trend may reflect the programmes’ 46 alignment with the needs of higher education or career-focused individuals, rather than younger, pre-tertiary respondents. Table 4.2 shows that the age distribution of STEM trainers involved in evaluating STEM training programs in Ghana is predominantly youthful, with 55% falling within the 18–25 age range. Table 4.2: Age distribution of trainers Age Frequency Percent 18 – 25 12 55.0 26 – 35 7 32.0 36 – 45 3 13.0 Total 22 100.0 Source: Primary data from the field (2024) This trend suggests that STEM fields are increasingly attracting younger professionals, reflecting growing interest and accessibility among the youth. Trainers aged 26–35 constitute 30%, representing a significant share of early-to-mid-career individuals. Meanwhile, only 15% of trainers are aged 36–45, indicating relatively lower participation among older professionals. Figure 2 illustrates the gender distribution of STEM students in Ghana, with males comprising 141 respondents (54%) and females accounting for 119 respondents (46%) out of a total sample of 260. Figure 2: Gender Distribution of Students Source: Primary data from the field (2024) 47 This reveals a moderate gender disparity in STEM training programme participation, highlighting ongoing challenges in achieving gender equity in the field. While female participation is relatively substantial, the figures emphasize the need for targeted initiatives to further bridge the gap and promote increased enrolment of women in STEM programmes. The gender distribution of trainers as illustrated in Figure 3 indicates a balanced representation of male and female respondents. The data showed 50% of the 20 respondents being male and 50% female, demonstrating effective gender inclusivity within the programme. Figure 3: Gender of Distribution of Trainers Source: Primary data from the field (2024) These findings are pivotal in evaluating the success of STEM training initiatives in fostering gender equity, a critical metric for sustainable development and empowerment in Ghana’s education sector. The distribution of the highest level of education among STEM trainers in Ghana as shown in Table 4.3 indicates that 68% hold a bachelor’s degree, while 32% have a master’s degree. This 48 suggests that most STEM trainers possess foundational academic qualifications relevant to their roles, ensuring a solid baseline of expertise for delivering quality STEM education. Table 4.3: Trainers’ level of education Level of Education of Trainers Frequency Percent Bachelor’s degree 15 68 Master’s degree 7 32 Total 22 100.0 Source: Primary data from the field (2024) Table 4.4 reveals that the majority of STEM trainers in Ghana (59%) have limited experience,