GHANA INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM 

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH 

 

 

 

ASSESSING THE ROLE OF COMMUNITY RADIO IN PROMOTING 

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN GHANA: A CASE STUDY OF 

DENKYEMBOUR DISTRICT 

 

 

BY 

 

EBENEZER ASUMANG 

(MADC20053) 

 

 

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND 

RESEARCH, GHANA INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF 

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF ART DEGREE IN 

DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION 

 

NOVEMBER 2021 



ii 
 

DECLARATION 
 
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION  
 
I declare that this thesis, with the exception of quotations and references contained in published 

works which have all been identified and acknowledged is entirely my own original work, and it 

has not been submitted, either in part or whole, for another degree elsewhere.  

 

SIGNATURE....................................................DATE......................................................................  

EBENEZER ASUMANG  
MADC20053 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION 
 
 I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this work were supervised in accordance 

with the guidelines for supervision of thesis laid down by School of Graduate Studies and 

Research, Ghana Institute of Journalism.  

 

 
 
SIGNATURE....................................................DATE..................................................................... 
 
NAME: DR. DANIEL ODOOM 
  

 



iii 
 

DEDICATION 

To my elder brother Mr. Godfred Kofi Asare for his fatherly role and encouragement. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



iv 
 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

I acknowledge my parents, Mr. Stephen Asare Asumang of blessed memory and mother Mercy 

Abena Ampomaa for allowing God to use them in blessing me with education.  

I wish to thank my inspirational and selfless supervisor, Dr.  Daniel Odoom for his immense 

contributions and inputs as well as his commitment in guiding me throughout this study. 

I would like to recognize the significant role played by my lecturers and facilitators in helping 

develop my academic skills at the School of Graduate Studies & Research. They include Dr. 

Collins Bempah-Brobbey (Dean), Dr. Joseph Obeng-Baah, Dr. Isaac Tandoh, Dr. Ebo Afful, Dr. 

Jonas Anson-Boateng, Dr. Lawrencia Agyepong, Dr. Carol L. Donkor, Dr. Stanley Semarco, Dr. 

Richard Boateng, Dr. Ebenezer Malcalm, Dr. George Asamoah and Dr. Albert Tayman.  

Also, to all my group study mates and friends especially Salome Kadi Tetteh, Jennifer Mensah, 

Samuel Koranteng, Prince George Sagoe, Esmeralda Avo-Quardoo, Emma Wiafe, Linda Dagadu, 

Rhonnah Nankunda, Debby Yemeh, Diana Bosuh, Emile McJames, Gifty Otumfo, Beatrice Ohene 

Ansah (Mrs. Boateng), Augustine Danso Boakye, Anna Yayra Ademadjiku and Chief Sannie. 

I specially acknowledge a wonderful, hardworking, and selfless person, Mr. Yaw Boamah Owusu 

Karikari. He has been immensely helpful in countless ways.  

I am grateful to my elder siblings Francis, Godfred, Eric, Janet and Mary(deceased) for their 

positive exemplary lifestyle which has influenced me greatly in life.   

Finally, and most importantly, I thank my dearest wife-best friend and partner, Cassandra Asarebea 

Asare Asumang for her encouragement and “soaking all my pressure” in helping me progress 

steadily to meet deadlines and eventually completing this work. To you my 3 lovely 

playmates(children) – Maame Afua, Papa Kwaku and Lois Nana Akua, I say thank you and may 

God carry you far in life.  



v 
 

ABSTRACT 
 

The study examined the role of community radio in promoting environmental sustainability in 

Ghana using Denkyembour district as a case. The study relied on the mixed methods approach, 

with questionnaire, interview schedule and focus group discussion as the research instruments. A 

total of 100 respondents made up of community members and staff of three radio stations were 

involved in the study using purposive and convenience sampling techniques. Quantitative data 

obtained was analyzed using frequencies, percentages, means and standard deviation whilst 

content analysis was done for the qualitative data. The study found that community radio stations 

contribute to the engagement in civic education and promotion of peace building consensus in the 

district. Also, community radio stations in the district have put in place measures such media 

discourses on environmental issues, public education on bushfires and public education on 

deforestation in promoting environmental sustainability in the district. However, financial 

constraints, poor technology, logistical challenges, unstable power supply in the region, among 

others hampered efforts of community radio stations to promote environmental sustainability in 

the district. This study recommends the introduction of awards by government, Ghana Journalist 

Association and corporate bodies to community radio stations that pay increased attention to 

environmental sustainability.  

 

 

 

 

 

 



vi 
 

Table of Contents 
DEDICATION............................................................................................................................................ iii 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................................................... iv 

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. v 

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................... viii 

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................... ix 

CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 1 

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 1 

1.1 Background to the Study .............................................................................................................. 1 

1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................................ 5 

1.3 General Objective ......................................................................................................................... 7 

1.4 Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 7 

1.5 Significance of Study ..................................................................................................................... 8 

1.6 Limitations of the study ................................................................................................................ 9 

1.6.1 Delimitations of the Study ......................................................................................................... 9 

1.7 Outline of the Study ...................................................................................................................... 9 

CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................................................... 10 

LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................... 10 

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 10 

2.2 Theoretical Framework .............................................................................................................. 10 

`2.3 Review of Concepts and Key Issues ......................................................................................... 19 

2.4 Sustainable Development ........................................................................................................... 29 

2.4.1 Using Community Radio for Promoting Environmental Sustainability ............................. 31 

2.4.2 Measures used by Community Radio to achieve environmental sustainability ................. 36 

2.4.3 Contribution of community radio stations to the development ........................................... 39 

2.5 Environmental Awareness ......................................................................................................... 42 

2.6 Media and Environmental awareness ....................................................................................... 43 

2.7 Challenges Facing Rural Community Radio ............................................................................ 46 

2.8 Empirical Review ........................................................................................................................ 48 

2.8.1 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................... 50 

2.9 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 52 

CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................. 54 

METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................... 54 



vii 
 

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 54 

3.2 Study Approach .......................................................................................................................... 54 

3.3 Study Design ................................................................................................................................ 55 

3.4 Study Area ................................................................................................................................... 56 

3.5 Population .................................................................................................................................... 57 

3.5.1 Sample and Sampling Procedure ............................................................................................ 57 

3.6 Research Instruments ................................................................................................................. 58 

3.7 Data Collection Procedure ......................................................................................................... 59 

3.8 Data Analysis Procedure ............................................................................................................ 59 

CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................................... 60 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................... 60 

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 60 

CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................................... 77 

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................... 77 

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 77 

5.2 Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 77 

5.3 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................. 79 

5.4 Recommendations ....................................................................................................................... 80 

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 83 

APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................................ 88 

RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................................... 88 

APPENDIX B ........................................................................................................................................ 92 

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR COMMUNITY MEMBERS ................................................... 92 

APPENDIX C ........................................................................................................................................ 96 

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE ........................................................................................ 96 

 

 

  



viii 
 

LIST OF TABLES 

TABLE 1: ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION OF RESPONDENTS ............................................................ 62 
TABLE 2: YEARS OF EXPERIENCE WITH RADIO STATION .......................................................... 62 
TABLE 3: CURRENT POSITION OF RESPONDENTS ........................................................................ 63 
TABLE 4: CONTRIBUTION OF COMMUNITY RADIO STATIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 

DENKYEMBOUR DISTRICT ..................................................................................................... 64 
TABLE 5: MEASURES COMMUNITY RADIO STATIONS HAVE PUT IN PLACE IN PROVIDING 

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN THE DISTRICT........................................................... 66 
TABLE 6: CHALLENGES COMMUNITY RADIO STATIONS IN DENKYEMBOUR DISTRICT FACE IN 

THEIR EFFORTS TO PROMOTE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN THE DISTRICT .......... 68 
TABLE 7: GENDER DISTRIBUTION OF COMMUNITY MEMBERS .................................................... 68 
TABLE 8: AGE DISTRIBUTION OF COMMUNITY MEMBERS ........................................................... 69 
TABLE 9: EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF COMMUNITY MEMBERS ...................................................... 70 
TABLE 10: CONTRIBUTION OF COMMUNITY RADIO STATIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 

DENKYEMBOUR DISTRICT ..................................................................................................... 71 
TABLE 11: MEASURES COMMUNITY RADIO STATIONS HAVE PUT IN PLACE IN PROMOTING 

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN THE DISTRICT........................................................... 72 
TABLE 12: LEVEL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AWARENESS AMONGST THE PEOPLE IN 

THE DISTRICT ........................................................................................................................ 73 
 

  

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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LIST OF FIGURES 

FIGURE 1: A FRAMEWORK FOR PROMOTING ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH 

COMMUNITY RADIO ............................................................................................................... 52 

FIGURE 2: SEX OF RESPONDENTS ................................................................................................. 60 

FIGURE 3: AGE OF RESPONDENTS ............................................................................................... 61 

 

 

 

 



 
 

 

 

 

 

 



 
 

 



 

 
 



 

 
 

 

 

 

 



 

 
 



 

 
 



1 
 

CHAPTER ONE 

INTRODUCTION 
1.1 Background to the Study 

Communication is undoubtedly central to the development of every society. This shows that 

communication and development are inseparable. As a result, there is no progress without 

communication. It is noteworthy to convey development messages, using appropriate 

communication channels and techniques (Coldevin, 1987), in not only helping to improve the 

living condition of the people, especially the marginalized group, but also in increasing their 

participation in the development process (Omeonu et al, 2020). Mass communication medium 

such as radio has gone a long way in promoting relevant developments in society. Its 

importance to the communities and the nation as a whole can be experienced through the mode 

of delivery, nature and the impact on the general public.  

This study explores the role of community radio in raising awareness, education and knowledge 

about the environment, since man is environment-dependent; there is need for all to be 

conscious about the environment. The challenges associated with the environment require 

urgent attention for man`s benefit as well as generations to come. Therefore, there is an urgent 

need for a more structured and targeted communication approach to environmental issues, 

problems and challenges. Community radio works well when radio stations broadcast to 

different geographic communities, where different racial and social groups exist in that 

geographic area and there may be power imbalances in that area; and that the airwaves on a 

community radio station should be opened to those members of communities who are not heard 

on other media (Tucker, E. 2013). 

Sustainability is defined to be “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the 

ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (United Nations [UN], 1987). This 

involves three main pillars which are informally identified as people, planet and profit. More 



2 
 

coherently, these include social, which focuses on the interconnectedness of systems and 

processes that support the building of healthy, livable communities that can support each other. 

In business, sustainability initiatives often involve fair working practices, employee health, 

wages, diversity and equality. The economic pillar on the other hand refers to the idea of 

efficient and responsible use of resources for long-term benefits. In business, profitability can 

be equated with lifespan. In short, moving to a sustainable business can increase the viability 

of your business in the long run. 

The third pillar of sustainability, which is environmental, shows that maximizing energy 

efficiency while reducing carbon dioxide emissions, waste, and business water use can provide 

environmental and economic benefits, while responding to community input. This pillar of 

sustainability gets the most attention as it dovetails well into the UN sustainable development 

goals. The issues of environmental degradation, conservation, protection, sanitation and 

management now take the centre-stage in the business development and survival policies of 

most corporate and non-corporate organizations. This global or environment-driven trend dates 

back to the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Environment in Stockholm, Sweden. It 

draws attention to the many unfortunate consequences that arise from human and corporate 

neglect or abuse of the environment, and cautioned that the environment can no longer be taken 

for granted and individuals and businesses must take specific and intentional actions to 

maintain, protect, regenerate and maintain a healthy environment for human existence, growth 

and sustainable development (UN, 1972). 

Corporate Social Responsibility theory as propounded by Archie B. Carroll in 1991, embodies 

environmental sustainability as well as the other two pillars of economic and social 

sustainability and serves as vehicle in realizing the UN SDGs. It shows sound environmental 

management which is vital to many companies, and they reflect this value in their CSR 



3 
 

programmes with long term effect on the bottom-line. This theory therefore buttresses the point 

of ensuring that environmental sustainability is embraced and achieved by all. 

There is also the Stakeholder theory popularized by Edward Freeman in his 1984 book, 

Strategic Management. He defines this as “any group or individual who can affect or is affected 

by the achievement of the organization’s objectives.” The basic principle of stakeholder theory 

is that the stronger the relationship with other external parties, the easier it is to achieve the 

business goals of the company. The worse your relationship, the harder it is. Lasting 

relationships with stakeholders are based on trust, respect and cooperation. Researchers have 

suggested that if you consider the global impacts of industry such as climate change or cultural 

changes due to marketing and advertising everyone is a stakeholder. Therefore, all are part of 

the process of making the environment a safe place to be.  

Sustainability and Sustainable Development are interconnected and are used interchangeably. 

Whereas sustainability is a broad term showcasing the management of resources without 

depleting them for future generations, sustainable development is concerned with the processes 

for improving long-term economic well-being and quality of life without compromising future 

generations’ ability to meet their needs. The UN SDGs of 17 goals and 169 targets, are possibly 

the most inclusive universal agenda endorsed since the UN Charter in 1945. Its thematic set 

ranges from poverty, health, education, inequality, energy, infrastructure, climate change, 

marine resources, peace, security, and good governance (Langford, 2016). 

The need to achieve environmental sustainability is crucial as businesses cannot be successful 

when the society around them fails. Environmental sustainability, as echoed by the UN 

sustainable and millennium development goals (SDG, 15; MDG, 7), can be greatly facilitated 

through initiatives on radio designed to educate stakeholders on practices that negatively 

impact the environment. For example, in developing countries such as Ghana, the government 



4 
 

has established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other related conservation or 

improvement organizations to redirect individuals, groups and corporate entities towards the 

attainment and sustenance of a healthy environment in the country at all levels. These 

organizations set guidelines to monitor and identify activities related to environmental 

protection and preservation. The government has enacted various legislation to empower 

individuals and businesses across the country to carry out these functions and to encourage 

healthy environmental habits. Today, more attention is geared towards the mining industry as 

most of the activities in this industry affect the environment. The fact remains that the 

environmental issue is a value to which citizens in every nation refers, on which public 

expresses judgments and opinions, and which requires decisions and attitudes from all social 

classes, governments, enterprises, unions and others.  

The United Nations Environment Programme in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 is one of the valuable 

proofs that the environment is one of the most universally recognized values. Out of 178 

countries, 118 of which embodied by Head of States, could deliberate environmental issues; 

where international agreements could be signed. Another proof is given by the many Green 

Directives originated by the European Union, in which most of them had already converted 

into national laws and regulations by the European countries. All these strategies and policies 

cannot achieve this goal without the full involvement of the mass media with community radio 

as a tool. It has the ultimate power for successful creation of environmental consciousness, 

conservation and preservation in Ghana and in Africa as a whole. The people therefore are 

encouraged and motivated to take appropriate actions that emancipate them from problems and 

improve overall living conditions which is the ultimate goal of society (Omeonu et al, 2020).  

Community radio as a tool of mass communication, help educate, empower and equip citizens 

with adequate knowledge of events that unfold at particular periods. Community radio, as a 

mass communication medium, help establish interaction between people, communities and the 



5 
 

entire nation in championing development. Community radio should enable people participate 

in the environmental issues of society and take ownership, unlike the current situation where 

collective interest is nobody`s business (Omeonu et al, 2020). Therefore, this study seeks to 

examine the role of community radio in promoting environmental sustainability in Ghana using 

Denkyembour district of the eastern region as a case.  

1.2 Problem Statement 

Mass communication mediums especially radio has become crucial in the delivery of 

development programmes in communities. Thus, for any development activity to be 

accomplished, community radio as a tool is indispensable. Many government efforts at 

reaching the various rural communities with decentralization benefits have proved futile due 

to poor coverage and information dissemination. Various governments have had turns through 

policies (EPA, 1995) to address the issues of environmental sustainability. This requires 

effective strategies from stakeholders to effectively deal with the menace undermining 

achievement of a sustainable environment. The achievement of development policies, 

programmes and projects is largely determined by the ability to marshal the masses for such 

programmes, policies or projects (Nwabueze, 2007); hence the need for mass communication 

medium of radio for campaigns on environmental sustainability. The usage of community radio 

for effective campaigns across the world, cannot be overemphasized. 

Most of the recent studies focused on the use of mass media without emphasis on community 

radio to create environmental awareness. (Anatsui and Adekanye, 2015) postulated that if mass 

media tools like radio had not existed, they may not have been indispensable. Their 

persuasiveness cuts across behavioural, scientific, and even the environment.  Studies on the 

use of community radio in promoting environmental sustainability in Ghana are limited with 

majority concentrating on all mass media tools including radio.  



6 
 

This study is intended to assess the role Community radio as a tool of mass media plays in 

promoting environmental sustainability among a selected section of the general public 

specifically within a district. The Denkyembour district presents one of the best places for this 

study as diamond mining and other activities have negatively impacted the environment. The 

District’s natural environment is characterized by numerous problems, emanating from the 

rainfall pattern, nature of micro soils, use of wood as fuel energy for cooking, farming and 

other household activities. The relatively hilly nature of the northern part of the District, 

coupled with the intensive farming activities using traditional practices has led to severe 

erosion and deforestation. On the issue of Health, Doctor-Patient ratio is very low in the 

District. The ratio is 1:54. Malaria, Diarrhoea, Urinary Tract Infections, Anaemia, 

Hypertension and HIV& AIDS are among the top 10 diseases in the District. The total number 

of pregnant women tested for HIV in the second quarter of 2016 stands at 885 (66.11%) with 

12 (14.21%) being positive. There is a lack of comprehensive knowledge of HIV and 

AIDS/STIs, especially among the vulnerable groups. The district has huge gaps in geographical 

access to quality health care (e.g. urban and rural). Among some of the critical problems 

encountered by the district which community radio can help resolve are inadequate and 

unreliable infrastructure, limited access to market information and low adoption of technology. 

Also, the district is confronted with poor quality and inadequate road transport networks, 

ineffective and inefficient spatial/land use planning and implementation particularly in the 

urban areas. There will be the need to know how this study will solve problems relating to 

community radio broadcast in the region and how that will translate into policy formulation by 

the various District Assemblies and or the Regional Coordinating Council and any other media 

related agencies like the Information Services Department. These and many other related issues 

provided the impetus for this study to be carried out so as to examine the role of community 



7 
 

radio in promoting environmental sustainability in Ghana using Denkyembour district of the 

eastern region as a case.  

1.3 General Objective 

The main objective was to examine the role of community radio in promoting environmental 

sustainability in Ghana using Denkyembour district in the Eastern Region as a case. 

1.3.1 Specific Objectives 

Below are the specific objectives: 

1. Ascertain the contribution of community radio stations to the development of the 

Denkyembour district 

2. To explore the measures community radio stations have put in place in promoting 

environmental sustainability in the District. 

3. Assess the level of environmental sustainability awareness amongst the people in 

the District. 

4. Examine the challenges community radio stations in Denkyembour district face in 

their efforts to promote environmental sustainability in the District. 

1.4 Research Questions 

The following questions will be explored: 

1. What is the contribution of community radio stations to the development of the 

Denkyembour district? 

2. What measures have been put in place by community radio stations to promote 

environmental sustainability in the District? 

3. What is the level of environmental sustainability awareness amongst the people in 

the District? 

4. What challenges do community radio stations in Denkyembour face in their efforts 

to promote environmental sustainability in the District? 



8 
 

1.5 Significance of Study 

This study will be of practical value to the efforts of enhancing community radio systems in 

Ghana. The results of this study will also contribute towards rural development as a whole. It 

serves as a source of encouragement to modern mass media programme planners. The study 

also emphasizes the vital need to adhere to community radio principles and effective 

communication systems in the development of a given community. Furthermore, the study will 

be of direct benefit to community radio stations in Ghana, since they will draw a deeper 

understanding of their main aim of establishment. It will also serve as a baseline for further 

research in the adherence of community radio principles.  

The findings of the study are significant to three main groups; academia, individuals and policy 

makers. To academia, the outcome of this study contributed to bridging the existing gap in 

literature regarding the role of community radio in promoting environmental sustainability. 

The identification of this specific role can inform literature as to how environmental 

sustainability can be realized or achieved amongst the people.  

Applications of the findings made by the study will help individuals to be able to know the 

significance of radio within their locality with regards to environmental awareness creation.  

Individuals can therefore make informed decisions about their environment and the need to be 

sustainable in their activities.  

Finally, policy makers can find empirical basis to support policies that would enhance 

environmental sustainability. Policy makers and other stakeholders can develop appropriate 

strategies and programmes to achieve environmental sustainability. These can be included in 

the Environmental Protection Agency laws and activities concerning the environment to impact 

the rest of the country.  



9 
 

1.6 Limitations of the study 

There was reluctance and lack of commitment on the part of respondents to answering the 

questionnaires. Many difficulties such as time factor and budgetary constraints may be 

encountered by the researcher due to the time allocation to complete this study. 

1.6.1 Delimitations of the Study 

The study focused on examining the role of community radio in promoting environmental 

sustainability in Ghana using Denkyembour district of the eastern region as a case. In order to 

work successfully within the limited time and available resources, the study only focused on 

the use of community radio to sensitize the people of Denkyembour district about 

environmental sustainability. 

1.7 Outline of the Study 

This study is organized into five (5) chapters. Chapter one contains the background to the study, 

problem statement, significance of the study, scope and limitations of the study. Chapter two 

is devoted to the review of literature. It broadly contains a theoretical review and empirical 

evidence gathered on the subject of study.  

Chapter three describes the methodology to be used for this study. This comprises the research 

strategy, sources and method of data collection, the type of data (primary and secondary) as 

well as description of the mode of the analysis and presentation of data.  

Chapter four is devoted to discussing research finding resulting from the analysis of data while 

chapter five summarizes the research findings and conclude the study as well as suggest 

recommendations for policy change.  

 

 

 



10 
 

CHAPTER TWO 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.1 Introduction     

This chapter seeks to review much of what already sets up the discussion on community radio 

operations. It looks at the theoretical framework, a review of concepts and key issues informing 

the study, and the empirical review. Other issues contained in the chapter are conceptual 

framework and the chapter summary. Specifically, issues such community radios, community 

radio; media role and radio in development have been reviewed in the chapter. 

2.2 Theoretical Framework  

The modernization theory, the participatory communication theory and the sustainability 

theory ground this study as discussed below.  

2.2.1 Modernization Theory  

Literature on modernization is expansive and the highly cited and foundational works in the 

field are Lipset (1959), Inglehart and Welzel (2005), and Inglehart, Norris and Welzel (2002). 

Modernization premise is that industrialization and economic development has a potential to 

produce a trickle-down effect of profound social impact on living conditions through enhanced 

educational, socioeconomic, and political development. Lipset argues that "the more well-to-

do a nation, the greater the chances that it will sustain democracy" (Lipset, 1959). According 

to him, rich countries are more likely to achieve the levels of education and urbanization, means 

of communication, social equality, and mobility to facilitate democracy. As a proponent of this 

thesis, Rostow (1960) sees Western countries as taking a leading progress and development for 

non-Western countries to imitate. He predicts that ultimately, the economies of less developed 

countries will be transformed into likenesses of industrialized Western countries, with high 

levels of consumption, democratic political institutions, technologies, and values, which are all 

considered core elements to be ‘modern’. 



11 
 

 From this interpretation, modernization is taken as a development process that occurs from a 

‘traditional’ to a ‘modern’ society. Using this logic, he theorized a linear path to democracy 

through five phases of economic development: “The traditional society, the preconditions for 

take-off, take-off, the drive to maturity, and the age of high mass consumption” (Rostow, 

1960). Modernization theory was well accepted, and by the 1950s, Western economists and 

sociologists were seriously concerned with modernizing newly independent ex-colonies, 

attempting to institute programs to assist them through the phases towards ‘catching up’ with 

industrialized countries. In the political context, this essay refers to modernization as a process 

of political development towards democracy and equality through legislation and 

administrative reforms. Considering that different countries are at different levels of economic 

and democratic transitions, a systematic linkage between the levels of economic development 

and democracy could not be established without critics. It soon became unclear whether 

economic development sustains democracy or establishes new democracies.  

 Assessing variables that cause the emergence of democracies, Przeworski and Limongi (1997) 

concluded that economic development helps to sustain existing democracy, but it has no 

potential to change regimes and establish new democracies. By the late 1960s, Realist critics 

such as Samuel Huntington were able to point out the variations in levels of stability within 

rich and poor nations, arguing that not all societies experience similar peaceful changes as 

predicted by early modernization theorists. Like Przeworski and Limongi (1997), he had no 

doubt that economic development had the potential to unleash profound social changes. 

However, social transformation cannot occur in unstable and even violent societies where 

supportive political institutions are lacking. He was realistic in stating that it takes time for 

political institutions to develop, and become able to facilitate positive changes in society. More 

strongly, Huntington (1971) criticized that “modernization may be simply a peculiarity of 

Western culture; whatever changes are taking place in African and Asian cultures could be of 



12 
 

a fundamentally different character and have very different results from those changes in 

Western societies” (Huntington, 1971). This opened up a stage for questioning the timing and 

trajectories of development. Modernization theory stresses the functional necessity of efficient 

bureaucracy for welfare state development because, without it, effective taxation and 

administration of complex distributional programs is simply impossible.  

2.2.2 Participatory Communication Theory  

This study is guided by the Participatory Communication Theory. The aim of Participatory 

Communications Theory (PCT) for rural development is to give power to communities to take 

decisions which determine how they would reduce their suffering which could have been 

brought about by poverty. Participatory communication makes it possible for the disadvantaged 

people to voice their needs, plan what they can do (supported or not), decide how to go about 

it, choose to do it and envisage the outcome. According to White (2011a), all these activities 

can take place if the people coalesce into organizations. Studies show that when community 

members operate within groups, they tend to acquire strength and achieve more than when they 

work alone (Uphoff, Esman, & Krishna, 1998).  

According to Kabubo, Mwabu and Ndenge (2009), many African countries after independence 

have had numerous anti-poverty policies and initiatives which have not achieved much. 

Poverty has remained a major problem, especially in rural areas (GOG, 2011). There was, and 

still is, in some quarters, a strong belief that economic growth could boost national wealth and, 

hence, result in the reduction of poverty (GOG, 2013). This may not be completely true, 

because, although economic growth is important, cases abound where the economy has grown 

but poverty has remained high or even increased. Despite the growth, there were still high rates 

of unemployment, poverty and inequality in development and in income distribution. In other 

words, economic growth did not translate automatically to economic development. This is so 

because according to Taylor and Mackenzie (1992), in reference to Ngumbu (1988), the 



13 
 

development strategies followed by African countries during the two to three decades of their 

political independence have gradually led the continent into its present destitution. Worse still, 

all plans designed by those concerned with development whether social or economic, indicated 

that without exception, the present policies, plans and strategies are incapable of bringing about 

any growth recovery in the foreseeable future (Ngumbu, 1988).  

For Kamadi (2013), economic growth does not necessarily alleviate poverty because: first, 

poverty is a complex social phenomenon, yet most development programmes operate in a very 

general and superficial manner. Second, state-engineered programmes tend to concentrate on 

income as the panacea for the problem of poverty, which is not always the case. Third, the most 

impoverished people are often unaware of what their government is doing to ease their 

problems. Fourth, poverty reduction interventions do not usually target the hardest hit groups; 

these indicatives are quite general. Many government strategies often benefit those just below 

the poverty line and not those far below. So those who happen to be near the line are ‘crossed 

over’, but not ‘the faraways’. According to Wanyama (1983), economic growth is only a 

facilitating factor in the enhancement of the people’s living conditions at the household level. 

Thus, growth in GDP does not always result in improved living conditions. The best indicators 

of desirable change in people’s living conditions may manifest in employment opportunities, 

education, health, food security, shelter, clothing, socioeconomic infrastructure, etc. Finally, if 

economic growth is not in the small-scale agricultural sector, it will not reduce acute poverty, 

because the vast majority of the very poor are engaged in agricultural activities in rural areas, 

and it is mainly agriculture that is able to accommodate many of them. Rural development 

means community development where the economy is characterised by agricultural activities 

as opposed to industrial activities (Legum and Mmari, 1995).  

Another strategy initiated, according to Kabubo, Mwabu and Ndenge (2009), besides direct 

economic growth, but which failed to create any positive impact, is the structural adjustment 



14 
 

programmes (SAPs), a creation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund which 

entailed, among other things, that was undertaken by some African countries governments 

including Ghana, to introduce cost-sharing in health facilities, privatize public enterprises, 

remove subsidies on public goods and services, liberalize internal and external trade, devalue 

its currency, restructure government institutions and retrench public staff. All these policies 

were devised basically to expand the economy and to help improve the lives of the poor, but 

most of them ended up aggravating the poverty situation. Among other things, they raised the 

prices of basic commodities and flooded markets with cheap imports. As a result, the people 

have remained or slide into backwardness, thus suffering from illhealth, malnutrition, low life 

expectancy and so on. What is interesting is that these policies have worked elsewhere; and the 

fact that they have worked in some countries in Asia has prompted Kabubo, Mwabu and 

Ndenge (2009) to wonder whether the failure of these measures to work in Kenya is due to lack 

of commitment in implementation, mismanagement of programmes, or/and corruption.  

Despite these persistent failures, it is strange that nobody in decision-making position has ever 

initiated a paradigm shift. Not many people have ever figured out that emphasis should be laid 

on empowerment of the local people; that the focus should be on development from below; 

that the avenue of participation should be explored; that more should be done in the rural area 

since more people reside there than in urban areas; that people should be encouraged to join 

grassroots organizations; and that these organizations should be supported to be able to manage 

the people’s problems (White, 2011b). Above all, not many have given a thought to the role of 

Community radio in rural development. The centre-bottom strategies have not worked in the 

past and are unlikely to work in future. What hold promise are the bottom-up strategies. 

According to White (2008), the time is ripe for the governments to realize this and re-orient 

their policies accordingly because the bottom-up strategies are basic needs-oriented, local 

resource-based, rural-centred.  



15 
 

White, as cited in Kyeremeh (2012), states, “the stagnation in African economies, the lack of 

vibrant indigenous cultural development, very little theoretical creativity, and the continual 

political dysfunction is due to the lack of building on the indigenous institutional roots of 

African societies”. So, the solution simply lies in the shift from centralized to decentralized 

communication. Whereas the latter mode of communication is accountable to the people, the 

former is not. An authentic Community radio is accountable to the people because they own it 

and so it has no option but to serve them. It exists because of the people (Egargo, 2008). On 

the other hand, public and commercial media have their own masters – the government and the 

entrepreneurs, respectively. And as the saying goes, he who pays the piper calls the tune. The 

communication approach of modernization theory of development emphasized that 

communication had to inform and persuade (Faure, 2000). An innovation had to be 

communicated to some people, and over time the information about the innovation diffused in 

the community. This kind of communication is now outdated and thus does not work. It is 

argued authoritatively that it is only the poor who can transform their own lives – not the 

government, not outsiders and not anybody else (Jallov, 2012). The government and outsiders 

can only offer a little assistance (the incentives of making the environment conducive); the 

main work (real work) has to be done by the people themselves.  

 Chambers (1983) notes that, outsiders are more often than not ignorant of the degree of poverty 

in the rural areas. They are ignorant, he adds, to an extent that they under-perceive poverty in 

the countryside. Outsiders who are usually urban-based also harbour a wrong feeling that the 

rural people are used to and are happy with the life they lead. These same outsiders also reckon 

that the rural poor are in their current state because of their laziness, ignorance, backwardness, 

and primitiveness and such like. People who think this way cannot be useful to the rural people. 

McNamara (1978) as cited in Chambers (1983) observes that the rural people are trapped in 

abject poverty epitomized by malnutrition, disease, squalid surroundings, high infant and child 



16 
 

mortality, and low life expectancy. They are constantly engaged in the struggle to get food. 

The inability of the African governments to increase small-scale agricultural production 

remains one of the main causes of poverty.  

 In summary, in order to alleviate poverty, people in the rural areas have to know how to send 

and receive information. In other words, they have to improve their system of communication. 

They have to also learn how to listen attentively and articulate their feelings in order to be able 

to define their problems, search for the solutions, plan and act collectively to improve their 

standard of living and disseminate information that promotes its audiences' cultural values. 

Genuine participation also increases the sense of ownership by local stakeholders, enhancing 

sustainability. Participatory communication is rare, but it can facilitate the empowerment of 

marginalised groups and have wider social and political effects. 

2.2.3 Sustainability Theory 

An overview of the literature on sustainability reveals that a variety of definitions has emerged. 

The definitions vary regarding the degree to which authors discuss the sustainability paradigm 

in light of corporate environmentalism (e.g., Banerjee, 2001) or corporate social responsibility 

(CSR) (e.g., McWilliams and Siegel, 2000), the degree to which the concept of sustainability 

is broadened to integrate and align economics with environmental and social concerns (e.g., 

Dyllick and Hockerts, 2002; Wagner, 2010), or the degree to which sustainability is discussed 

from the perspective of institutional theory (e.g., Bansal, 2002; Campbell, 2007). Therefore, in 

the literature, the term sustainability is used to refer to the triple bottom line and to the long-

term profitability of organisations (e.g., Bansal, 2002; Dyllick and Hockerts, 2002). This can 

be understood as the successful market-oriented realisation and integration of ecological, social 

and economic challenges to an organisation (Schaltegger et al., 2013). According to Dyllick 

and Hockerts (2002), Sustainability consists of the following elements: 1) a sustainable 

corporation considers not only economic but also social and environmental aspects, which is 



17 
 

consistent with the triple bottom line concept; 2) Sustainability requires a long-term business 

orientation as a basis for satisfying stakeholders’ needs now and in the future; and 3) a 

sustainable corporation follows the rule of living on the income derived from capital, not on 

the capital itself. Furthermore, Lozano (2008) suggests that different sustainability definitions 

can be distinct with respect to the following categories:  

1) the conventional economists’ perspective; 

 2) the non-environmental degradation perspective;  

3) the integrational perspective, i.e., the integration of the economic, environmental, and social 

aspects;  

4) the inter-generational perspective, i.e., the time dimension; and 

 5) the holistic perspective. 

As reflected by Stavins et al. (2002), in economics, sustainability is often interpreted in terms 

of maintaining human well-being over intergenerational time scales. However, considering the 

viewpoint as given by the definition of sustainable development offered by the World 

Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), some have raised challenges 

regarding this definition, claiming that it is too vague (Stavins et al., 2002), while others 

emphasised a lack of compromise or trade-offs among the various goals of the triple bottom 

line sub-systems (environmental, social and economic) (Pezzey and Toman, 2002). 

Furthermore, the work of Chichilnisky (1996) provides a significant contribution and 

alternative to the ‘traditional’ sustainability literature (such as the studies based on discount 

utility criterion) by proposing axioms that imply a more symmetric treatment of generations in 

that neither the present nor the future should be favoured over the other. 



18 
 

There is a substantial body of knowledge on the environment in ecological economics (Hoepner 

et al., 2012). Costanza et al.’s (1997) premise that the ‘value of the world’s ecosystems and 

natural capital’, for example, has shaped much of the literature regarding the human– 

economy–environment interactions. It can be argued that while both disciplines (environmental 

and ecological economics) share the common objective of understanding the human–

economy– environment interactions, their approaches are profoundly different 

(Venkatachalam, 2007). Environmental economists utilize the neoclassical mainstream 

methodology with its strong focus on efficiency, while ecological economists strive to include 

broader socio-economic features into the scope of their analyses (Daly and Farley, 2004; 

Venkatachalam, 2007).  

Recognition that economic development alone is not a sufficient condition for overall 

sustainability implies an integrative view in the context of simultaneous satisfaction of the 

triple bottom line (Dyllick and Hockerts, 2002). For instance, while focusing merely on the 

economic bottom line would lead to the economic viability of the organisation, such focus 

would not necessarily lead to sustainability in terms of environmental and social aspects 

(Lozano, 2008a). However, there is a tendency in recent literature to emphasise trade-offs in 

Sustainability that address situations in which the economic, environmental and social aspects 

of Sustainability cannot be achieved simultaneously (Hahn et al., 2010).  

 Intergenerational equity is inherent to sustainability. How shall resources be allocated over 

time to ensure that generations are treated equally, i.e., that no generation is favoured over 

another (Chichilnisky, 1996; Guest, 2010)? From this perspective, sustainability involves some 

concern for intergenerational equity and the recognition of the role of finite environmental 

resources in long-term decision making (Pezzey and Toman, 2002). Given that the holistic 

perspective explicitly combines the integrational and intergenerational perspectives (Lozano, 

2008, 2008a), this perspective proposes two dynamic and simultaneous equilibria that 



19 
 

encompass the interactions of three dimensions (the economic, environmental, and social in 

the present) as well as the temporal aspects (i.e., short-, long- and longer-term perspectives) 

(Lozano, 2008, 2012). Sustainability improves the quality of our lives, protects our ecosystem 

and preserves natural resources for future generations. In the corporate world, sustainability is 

associated with an organization's holistic approach, taking into account everything, from 

manufacturing to logistics to customer service. 

`2.3 Review of Concepts and Key Issues 

2.3.1 Understanding Community Radio 

Currently there is no consensus on the definition of community radio. According to the Guide 

for the Civil Society (2015), a community radio has been defined as a radio for the people in a 

community. It is a radio of the people because it is a two-way process that is considered to 

empower people in the community to have opportunities to identify various problems around 

them and also create solutions to those problems. It enables the most vulnerable to participate 

in decisions for positive change in their lives. Moreover, community radio allows people to 

collaborate in producing programs on the radio which focuses on their local concerns and 

priorities. Moreover, a vibrant community radio is expected to help the remotest communities 

to participate not only into the national and global economies, but also to the development of 

knowledge-based economies. It is known to sharpen and improve governance by empowering 

people to hold both local and governments leaders accountable.  

One of the common components of community radio stations is that they are people centered 

radio stations whereby they are established to serve a specific community or area. Gray (2002) 

argues that vibrant community radios are normally established and operated by community 

members themselves. They are sometimes established by Non-Governmental Organizations, 

while others are started as developmental projects, and some are started by community radio 

activists and supporters for community discussion and participation in their communities. 



20 
 

Based on their nature, community radio stations serve a very significant role in providing 

various information in the areas they operate. According to AMARC Africa (1998), vibrant 

community radios in an ideal world allow members of a community to gain access to 

information, education and entertainment just like what the mainstream media does. Moreover, 

vibrant community radios which are well utilized by the communities can serve as a platform 

for debate, exchange of ideas and reactions to plans and projects in a given community. Apart 

from being used as platforms for debates, community radios are also able to accommodate 

people's ideas and satisfy their spiritual and psychological wellbeing much better than any other 

form of broadcasting such as mainstream media (AMARC Africa, 1998).  

White (2013) observes that until 1985, there were fewer than 10 community radio stations in 

all of Africa but in 1990s Africa was shaken by rapid and profound political and social change 

whereby until 1998 they were hundreds of independent radio stations and community radio 

stations on the continent. It should be noted that amongst the first African countries to establish 

a community radio per se was Kenya where Homa Bay community radio station was 

established in May, 1982. One of the aspects which differentiate community radios from other 

mainstream radio station or commercial radio stations is the issue of community participation 

(White, 2013). Community radios have a sense of belonging whereby all members of a given 

community have a feel of ownership. Amongst the key requirement of community participation 

in community radios ensures that members of the community are involved in the running of 

the station. Thus, community members may be fully or partially involved in the board members 

or trustees, policy-making, management, selection and provision of programming, and 

production of programs on the stations. 

The community can be territorial or geographical, a township, village, district or island. It can 

also be a group of people with common interests, who are not necessarily living in one defined 

territory (Tabing, 2002). For example, a community can be defined as any of the following: a 



21 
 

‘community of Church goers’ based on some shared characteristics of visiting the Church 

regardless of the geographical location of the Cathedral, or a community of football fans based 

on the shared passion for football. It could also consider the proximity of a group of people 

who live closer to each other and may be affected by the same social and geographical factors 

as for example the community of Kumbiehi to mean five square foot miles of settlement behind 

the Airstrip in Wa in the Upper West Region. Therefore, in relation to community radio, the 

term ‘community’ refers to the latter explanation: a group of people living within a particular 

area who would have to unite to participate in the decisions that affect them through the radio.  

Community radio succeeds when it grows out of the community’s sense of internal cohesion 

and consciousness (Fraser and Estrada, 2002). A community that analyses its needs in detail 

and thinks about the causes of its problems and marginalization will often come to the 

conclusion that it requires communication to help people formulate common understanding 

and common goals. Community radio is the modern means of communication for social 

communication. It falls under general means of mass communication. This type of radio 

broadcasting has been acclaimed as the most appropriate medium for communicating for social 

change in grass-root communities, with the result that CR stations have multiplied by the 

thousands all over the world during the past five decades (Mainali, Chapagain and Subba, 

2009).  

Rural people need some encouragement, some information, a little bit of inspiration, skills, 

knowledge and to a certain extent entertainment. That is something, which cannot be ensured 

by highly bureaucratized and highly commercial government and private means of 

communication. This demands a means of communication, which is guided along by a different 

concept. Community radio is one of such means of communication, which has been pursued 

with a view to fulfil these needs (Mainali et al, 2009). Looking for self-respect of the local 

people should be the prime objectives of community radio. The local population is always 



22 
 

looking for fundamental identity that can supply element of self-respect. It is possible only in 

the perpetuation of culture. The concept governing program production in community radios 

should be centred on local social and cultural themes. Community radios should reproduce 

national and local culture and broadcast the same from the viewpoint of purveying information-

oriented, informative and entertaining programmes. It will go a long way when it comes to 

have the listeners remaining in touch with their history, tradition, language, arts, religion and 

culture.  

One must have more faith in producing local and national programmes. What this means is, 

efforts must be taken to see to it that the structure of the programmes, contents, expression and 

language have the local flavour. One has to be alert whether or not the programmes produced 

by community radio stations and broadcast by them are in the interest of their listeners or not. 

The editorial aspect of the community radio stations be such that rather than accusing someone 

or presenting someone as the victim while producing programmes, it should be centred on 

pointing out the wrong acts while encouraging exemplary ones at the same time (Mainali et al, 

2009). Community radio as defined by Tabing (2002) is one that is operated in the community, 

for the community, about the community and by the community. The involvement of the 

community in the operations of the community radio cannot be emphasized enough. The 

repetition of the word “community” in almost every phrase is not mere expression, but serious 

emphasis on the role played by the community in a community radio (Tabing, 2002).  

Since the advent of Africa's democratization process in the 1990s many communication 

activists now see it as the basis for popular participation by the majority of the people. Eugenie 

Aw, former President of AMARC Africa indicated that, democratization in Africa, raises a 

specific challenge. The challenge here is how is it possible for populations, in all their diversity 

to determine their future and the type of development they wish for themselves. He also 

questions how radio participation can create a democratic culture that enables the population 



23 
 

to take responsibility for political, economic and national management. Radio, the new tree of 

speech, is capable of rekindling the key tradition of oral expression in which speech ‘builds the 

village (AMARC Africa, 1998). Community Radio is still a growing concept in Africa, both in 

actual terms and in popularity. It has developed differently across the continent. However, there 

are many issues of common concern and a strong will to share views and experiences, which 

have been highlighted in several conferences and workshops throughout the continent.  

Community radio signifies a two-way process, which entails the exchange of views from 

various sources and is the adaptation of media for use by communities. In an ideal world, 

community radio allows members of a community to gain access to information, education and 

entertainment. In its purest sense, it is media in which the communities participate as planners, 

producers and performers and it is the means of expression of the community, rather than for 

the community. This is because current media emphasis has been on the use of mass 

communications, with messages flowing from the capital cities to the periphery, where 

feedback from communities has been limited. Even though community radio should encourage 

access and participation by communities, it also has to address issues such as who is in control, 

whether it is democratically managed and whether there is a mechanism whereby it is 

accountable to those it serves.  

Community radio thus can be defined as broadcasting which is for, by and about the community 

and whose ownership and management are representative of the community, which pursues a 

social development agenda, and which is non-profit (AMECEA-IMBISA, 2003). From this 

definition it is evidently clear that Community radio is the property of the community members 

and should therefore work in thrust for the community. This analogy is reaffirmed by the 

explanation of Community radio offered the guidelines for the operations of community radio, 

‘the central purpose of a community radio is to offer the listening community a voice and help 

develop their community and build community life’. Also community radio facilitates 



24 
 

individuals, groups, and communities to tell their own diverse stories, to share experiences, and 

in a media rich world to become active creators and contributors of media, rather than passive 

consumers. It presents a unique vehicle for the community and voluntary sector, civil society, 

agencies, NGOs and citizens to work in partnership to make a difference (The Community 

Radio Forum of Ireland, 2010).  

The African Charter on Broadcasting (2001) came out with a widely accepted definition of 

community radio in the Sub Saharan Africa. It defines community radio as a service, which is 

for, by and about the community, whose ownership, and management is representative of the 

community and pursues a social development agenda. Practitioners as well as policy makers in 

Ghana, Tanzania, Namibia, South Africa and Zambia, to name just a few, have adopted this 

definition as it emphasizes on content which is around the lives of the community, ownership, 

and well as social development aspects of community radio station (Banda, 2003). This study 

adopted the above definition of community radio as advanced by the African Charter on 

Broadcasting (2001) because it recognizes community radio as a service, which is for and about 

the community, and whose management or ownership draws from the community members. 

2.3.2 Radio and Development  

Radio is a fascinating medium among the various mass communication media because of its 

special characteristics. It continues to be as relevant and potent as it was in the early years 

despite the emergence of more glamorous media. As we know, radio is a blind or sightless 

medium, the performer (announcer, newsreader, discussant, narrator, etc.) has to creatively 

conjure up images of their listeners. The listeners too have to imagine the performance 

creatively but the performer must spark off the imagination of the listeners with expressive 

performance or communication. The role of the mass media is to provide the audience 

information, education or entertainment or all the three balanced in different proportions. The 

role of radio, as a medium of mass communication varies from country to country (Sharma and 



25 
 

Uniyal, 2016). With newspaper limited to literates and television and the internet limited to 

those who can afford expensive gadgets, the radio is no longer an alternative means of getting 

information but a viable option. It is the dominant media in Africa and has the largest audience 

and covers a larger geographical area as compared with other media outlets (Myers, 2008).  

Consequently, it is the largest contributor to the efforts by the media at development since the 

explosion of radio stations across Africa in the last 30 years. Thirty years ago, in 1988, there 

were only three non-state radio stations across Sub-Saharan Africa (Girard, 2003 cited in 

Myers, 2008). She also adds that, if today they are numbering thousands even in countries 

where press freedom is curtailed, that should be attributable to the significant role the radio, 

particularly community radio, plays in development. According to Onyeka et al. (2013), rural 

radio stations serve to enlighten rural dwellers on the political, cultural, health and educational 

aspects of their living leading to self-actualization and national development. 

2.3.3 Characteristics of Community Radio 

A community radio station is characterized by its ownership and programming and the 

community it is authorized to serve. It is owned and controlled by a non-profit organization 

whose structure provides for membership, management, operation and programming primarily 

by members of the community at large. Its programming should be based on community access 

and participation and should reflect the special interests and needs of the listenership it is 

licensed to serve (Grey, 2002). Although there is a remarkable similarity in the way that 

community radio is theorized around the world, and in different particular projects, community 

radio stations themselves are quite diverse in the way that they operationalize what it is to be a 

community radio station. This section outlines the ways in which community radio stations 

differ (Grey, 2002). 



26 
 

2.3.4 Distinct Features and Functions of Community Radio 

Community radio has the demonstration of different groups and concerns in the community 

and inclusion of disadvantaged and minority groups. Some distinct features are described 

below: 

 i. The audience as protagonists  

The particular focal point of community radio is to make its audience the main standard-bearer, 

by their association in all portions of its management, content and program production, and by 

providing them with programming that will help them in the comprehensive development of 

the particular community.  

ii. A special slant on News, Entertainment and Education  

News on a community station is not an isolated story or event alone; rather, it aims to be a part 

of an ongoing and future process which supports change and development in the community. 

Education and entertainment are provided in a form that is collective cultural expression as 

well as sharing of experiences (Pate, 2013).  

iii. Principles of Public Access and Participation  

It is citizen’s democratic right to get accurate, reliable and timely information. A community 

radio’s broadcast pattern reaches all members of community it aims to serve; the community 

is free to comment and criticize.  

iv. Representation of Different Groups and Interests in the Community  

Community radio broadcasts programmes that cater to vulnerable and marginalized groups in 

the community and encourage them to share their ideas and views on air. Disadvantaged and 

vulnerable groups in the community will be able through the broadcast of their programmes, 

problems and limitations, issues etc.  



27 
 

v. Inclusion of Minority and Marginalized Groups  

The programmes of community radio encourage wide diversity of thoughts and views from 

different marginalized groups, such as women and youth or gypsy and dalit community. 

Besides, community radio promotes the cultural perspectives and interests of the minority 

groups (Fraser, 2001).  

vi. Promote Development and Social Change  

Sustainable development and positive social change of minority groups can be facilitated by 

community radio. It is community radio which can convey the sufferings and sorrows, 

difficulties and limitations of a community to the policy making authority. It can focus on the 

specific problems; arrange discussion on the remedies and mobile collective action. 

2.3.5 The Roles of Community Radios in the Community 

 Community radio stations play diverse roles and functions in our communities. Apart from the 

traditional roles of the media in community (educating, entertainment, warning, criticizing, just 

a few to mention), community radios perfectly serve as the means to promote democracy, 

sustainable development, and peace in communities they operate in (Gustafsson, 2013). This 

is because they (community radio) allow community members to share diverse information 

surrounding their communities. For example, citizens and non-citizens can develop their 

political understanding and work to take their problems to the attention of the bigger public. 

The establishment and existence of community radio stations have been very vital in the 

communities they operate because members in those communities have a greater chance to 

increases the partisan and social power, knowledge, and experience of those who participate 

(Sourou, 2013).  

According to Sourou (2013), community radios have a significance role to play especially in 

the rural areas. This is because they have power to reach out to people in rural settings, people 



28 
 

who may not meet or converge in any other places. This is a very vital role played by the 

community radios bearing in minds that much of the population of Africa is rural, and this has 

been pointed out as a challenge for developmental projects. Furthermore, community radios 

act as voice of the voiceless by allowing community members to participate and use the radio 

stations to give out their views on issues affecting their communities. For example, they may 

discuss on how they can manage their natural resources, raw materials, community affairs and 

many other issues. Moreover, community radios are tools for social justice because they 

effectively respond to a real need to be informed, which is a fundamental right of all members 

in such communities (Sarr, 2014). Likewise, community radios have the power and influence 

to the listeners and participants in focusing on local issues especially those which affects their 

communities; they can as well mobilize listeners and participants to fully engage in their 

community developmental issues (Sourou, 2013).  

In addition, community radios have a greater chance to empower marginalized groups by 

giving skills in political communication, helping them develop support networks, and 

programming for their basics needs or priorities in the community. Moreover, community 

radios play significant roles in providing civic education during election periods to the 

prospective voters. According to Gustafscon (20013), the community radios fully engage in 

civic education. Gustafscon gives an example of the 2016 general election in Ghana where 

community radios played a major role. During the election period the community radio stations 

in Ghana informed citizens about their civic rights and responsibilities and provided them with 

the knowledge and information necessary for them to make an informed and sober decision 

making during the voting process.  

Apart from provision of civic education, community radios do also engage in peace building 

during election periods. Since most of the elections in African countries have been 

characterized by conflicts and instability, community radios have been fully engaged in airing 



29 
 

out peace messages, and sometimes they do invite and give airtime to any peace building agent 

on institution as a mechanism to restore peace and tranquility during the entire election process. 

In Ghana for example, during the 2016 general election, most of the community radios invited 

religious leaders and NGO representatives as an initiative to preach for a peaceful election in 

the country. In the same line, community radios play a remarkable role in preventing or 

minimizing hate speeches during election periods especially in countries where ethnicity is a 

major problem. Hate speeches are so dangerous and illegal in any democratic countries as they 

can cause destruction in society. A visible example resulting from hate speeches based on 

ethnicity was in Rwanda whereby because of hate speeches anchored by the media, thousands 

of civilians lost their lives in the 1994 genocide. As a result, many community radio stations 

have devoted themselves in fighting hateful speeches during elections. This move played an 

accredited and credible role throughout the election because the country witnessed a peaceful 

election.  

In essence, the community radio stations are so powerful and essential communication tools to 

be recommended amongst community members. This is due to the fact that community radios 

operate and reach majority of the community members who mostly need and depend on such 

community radios to get informed of all matters affecting or likely to affect their communities. 

For example, through community radios, citizens are able to get diverse information about the 

performance of their leaders, developmental issues, participation in social or economic 

activities and many other opportunities surrounding their communities. 

2.4 Sustainable Development 

Sustainable development does not have a long historical background, but the concept of 

sustainability has long historical connections either religious or socio-cultural belief on 

protecting natural settings and adapting natural way of life. Ene et al. (2011) defined 

sustainable development as a fusion between economics and ecology that is not considered as 



30 
 

doctrine or a theory. They further stated sustainable development as “a new term for an old 

idea: there is no viable economy without natural resources and no resources management 

without economic rationale” (Ene et al., 2011). After the rapid industrialization in the western 

countries, these countries started to observe the change in climatic variation and realized the 

change in natural environmental settings.  

The publication of “The Limits to Growth” in 1972 by Donella H. Meadows and her team, the 

Club of Rome, was a great milestone to analyze the future predictability of environment and 

earth system. Using system dynamics theory and a computer model called “World3,” the book 

presented and analyzed 12 scenarios that showed different possible patterns and environmental 

outcomes of world development over two centuries, from 1990 to 2100 (Meadows et al. 2003). 

Scientifically, it introduced Jay Forrestor's newly established computational approach of 

system dynamics modeling and quantitative scenario analysis into the environmental and 

sustainability analysis.  

The theoretical framework for sustainable development developed through the series of 

international conferences on environment, nature conservation, bio-diversity, etc., to discuss 

and frame sustainability at the global and national scale between 19723 and 19924. In 1983, 

the UN organized the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) and 

formed the commission chaired by Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland. The 

commission comprised of representatives from both developed and developing countries, to 

address the growing concern over the “accelerating deterioration of the human environment 

and natural resources and the consequences of that deterioration for economic and social 

development” (WCED, 1987). The commission formally defined the term “sustainable 

development” through the landmark publication of “Our Common Future.” The report 

popularized the definition of sustainable development: “Development that meets the needs of 

current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own 



31 
 

needs” (WCED, 1987). Brundtland’s concept of sustainable development became popular and 

widely used in academic, experimental, organizational, global, national, and local level, 

although it is very much vague and not easily measurable. On this ground, 

UNECE/OECD/Eurostat’s joint report states that ‘Sustainable development is a popular and 

important concept, but one that is difficult to define with precision and, therefore, difficult to 

measure” (UNECE/OECD/Eurostat WGSSD, 2008). Bartonand Du Plessis (2000) explained 

the interconnectedness of three sectors: economic, social and environment as three pillars of 

sustainable development that could maintain the reasonable level of balance to achieve 

sustainable development. 

The way and progress of sustainable development can be observed thorough the indicator sets 

available in global, national, regional, or local level either in quantitative or qualitative formats. 

Nevertheless, it is very difficult to measure the ultimate goal of sustainable development 

through absolute measurable terms. Therefore, a country or community has its set of indicators 

based on a predefined framework that will forecast the level of progress towards sustainable 

development, which is based on available national, regional, or local policies. Progress can be 

measured with a compilation of indicators that will give the possibility of formulating strategies 

to bring out priority areas of anxiety that will create attention on the pathway to achieving 

sustainable development goals in the future (Sorman, 2007). 

2.4.1 Using Community Radio for Promoting Environmental Sustainability  

The world has turned its face to the use of community radio to bring participatory economic 

development at a grass-root level in developing countries (Mathewos, 2006). The relevance of 

community radio in Ghana is undeniable, because of the low literacy level, the existence of 

more than nations and nationalities, poor infrastructure, the infancy of democratization as well 

as deep-rooted social problems of the nation (Getahun, 2006). Community radio plays 

important role in the development process and advancement of good governance practices, like 



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harmonious social interaction, economic development, political participation, and the existence 

of culture and language. Ghana as a country has several problems, the one expects from the 

media is producing informed citizens, brings social development and technological 

transformation in the means of information dissemination, education, entertainment, and 

mobilization of the community (Getahun, 2006).  

In line with the above assumptions, community radio gives the chance for the community to 

involve in all aspects of the station management and program production which provides and 

helps them in the development and social advancement of their community (Fraser and Estrada, 

2001). It should create a holistic perception of the local reality and the options for improving 

it. Community radio in Ghana is serving small ethnic groups, which have a strong sense of 

local identity (Infoasaid, 2011); and it aimed to educate the community, fostering behavioral 

changes, and empowering the community. Community radio in Ghana has been used for 

integrated and sustainable development besides giving license for the sake of media coverage.  

The sense of community radio is interested in holistic approaches: “In the community, for the 

community, about the community and by the community” (Tabing, 2002, p. 9). It is a medium 

for the voiceless, to voice their issues, concerns, cultures, traditions, and languages. So that it 

gives access to voices in the community and encourages diversity, creativity, and participation 

(Jemal, 2013). The expansion of community radio is one of the best opportunities to use radio 

for development purposes at the grass-root level (Ibid). Moreover, the community media 

essence and the holistic approach have similar intentions, applications, and practices. 

Community radio helps the community to identify their goals, create holistic plans, monitor 

the progress of the community development activities, and guide sustainable development. The 

plan helps to create a shared common understanding of sustainable community success, and it 

determines and analyzes effective strategy areas for community success (Baxter and Purcell, 



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2007). This planning will help in bringing the whole community together with capacity 

development and productivity enhancement of the community.  

Most of the community radio stations disseminated social development messages that promote 

the local language and culture (Jemal, 2018; Kasshun, 2012). The program format of the 

stations was mainly focused on infrastructure projects like health, education, agriculture, good 

governance, and other social development activities (Ibid). Community radio strives for the 

development of cultures, languages, education, agriculture, health, democracy, good 

governances, gender, and youth development. It also can create awareness and motivate the 

community on development activities. Jemal (2018) points out that community radios are the 

best alternative to assist sustainable development efforts by helping the self-expression of local 

people who are often left as voiceless with the mainstream media. It plays an important role by 

providing public platforms for the advancement of community and set governance agendas that 

focused on social, political, and economic development. Community media prioritize the local 

community agendas (IMS, 2019) because the beholder of the station community agenda’s gets 

priority.   

 Ghanaian community radio stations have the potential to play a significant role in providing 

quality information to citizens and driving public accountability and governance issues through 

‘citizen-oriented journalism’ (Ibid). In the spirit of this, capacity development and sustainable 

development are the core for an integrated model which includes education, health, nutrition, 

agriculture, housing, security, infrastructure, politics, culture/religion, and recreation. To be 

effective in the holistic development of the community, the stations’ program schedule has to 

consider the holistic approach principles: plain communication strategies, seminar/workshop 

format, live-service job training, sensitization, research, and documentation. Based on the 

elements, the output of the integrated community development aimed to improve and sustain 

the livelihoods of the community. The living standard of the community must be improved in 



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terms of accessible roads, constant electricity, and power supply, portable drinking water, 

access to education and health care service, employment opportunities, affordable and 

comfortable housing, advanced cultural beliefs, good governance, and empowerment of the 

community members, improved environmental conditions and available and affordable food 

supply.  

Development agents and government sectors have to create interaction or coordination for 

integrated development. To sustain the development, they have to prepare the road map for 

integrated development with a holistic approach that takes into account the interests, values, 

ways of thinking, experiences, skills, etc. of all the community members. Accordingly, it 

requires a need assessment survey to redefine the predominant patterns of distribution of wealth 

of the community. It helps to know what type of scarcity has and prepare an appropriate plan 

to fulfill it. Integrated and sustainable development will determine the approaches that we use 

and the plans we applied. As seven D approach principles approached, appreciating the existing 

capacities of the community values and cultures is essential. Processing and creating avenues 

to increase the participation, knowledge, and reflection of the community develop capacities 

to initiate and manage changes. These functions are important in community radio stations for 

holistic development (Dhamotharan, 2009). Different development frameworks for strategic 

sustainable development have to address to the community. As Robert, et-al (1997) stated the 

five levels (system, success, strategic, action, and tools), the community radios have to address 

and have to create a holistic understanding in the community. To clarify the above ideas, the 

community has to understand the system level with the innovative approach, the strength of 

creating community awareness and allowing for social mechanisms, self-organization, 

interdependence, and diversity, through participation, equal representation, and collaboration 

(Dhamotharan, 2009). The media have to create a broad and common vision of community 

development where a community can manage and allocate their resources to achieve identified 



35 
 

needs. Developing community members’ capacity to identify and meet their own needs through 

diverse participation and representation are other mechanisms. This approach establishes a 

transparent democratic atmosphere that provides a positive attempt towards changing 

community members’ mindsets.  

The open participatory process can allow the community members to freely elect their 

representatives, and they can discuss the community's needs in democratic ways. This action 

can build the democratic process and create a sense of community ownership for the 

community project which is subsequently completed, monitored, and evaluated. The approach 

also clusters communities together to share resources and exchange benefits among 

communities. The tools level assessing completed community projects and evaluating the 

effectiveness project. These levels have to support by the media in form of development 

advocacy. The holistic approach emphasized the involvement of the community members in 

participating programs and activities for the provision of human needs of physical 

infrastructures, emotional, socio-political, economic, and technology enterprise of the people 

concerned (Akinyemi, 1997). According to Imhabekhai (2009), integrated community 

development is an effective tool for promoting peace, justice, equality, and happiness. Thus, 

all people have the chance to participate equally in their development and societal growth. 

Sustainable development requires the recognition of intergenerational equality, which implies 

the assumption as an ethical imperative of respect the generation in consider of a healthy 

environment, but it also the right of forthcoming generations to inherit from present 

generations, a healthy and ecologically balanced environment. In sustainable development, the 

community livelihood options have to be making balanced in consideration of their natural 

resources. It requires that communities be self-sufficient, that people’s control over their own 

lives is increased, and that the social and cultural identity and decision-making capacities of 

societies be preserved and reinforced. As a holistic process, sustainable development requires 



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an indissoluble dialectic union between theory and practice. This, in turn, implies a dynamic 

process undergoing constant progression and modification (Kapur, 2015). 

2.4.2 Measures used by Community Radio to achieve environmental sustainability  

Many principles underpin the activities of every community radio for effective and efficient 

delivering of service to its audience. According to Ngugu and Kinyua (2014), there is a general 

agreement on four principles that are seen as pillars of community broadcasting. These are 

access, diversity, localism, and independence. These principles serve as mechanism for 

community radio characteristics. Again, the above principles are embodied in the 

programming, management, participation and revenue generation procedures of community 

radio stations. Ngugi and Kinyua (2014) explained the first principle access to be that, 

community broadcasting has to promote proactive voluntary participation in media production 

rather than passive consumption of media. The sector provides facilities (including skills and 

training) that ensure access to the media for all parts of the community. At the core of 

community radio or television is the relationship between the station and the community in 

which it is situated. Easy access allows local people to focus on local issues, giving voice to 

groups and individuals who otherwise have no choice but to remain silent.  

Similarly, Fraser and Estrada (2001) stated that, community radio stations programming should 

be based on community access and participation and should reflect the special interests and 

needs of the listenership it is licensed to serve (Fraser & Estrada, 2001). This is to emphasize 

that, the people that community radio station intend to serve should have full access to the day-

to-day activities of the station. Another principle of Community radio is to create a diversity 

of voices and opinions on the air through its openness to participation from all sectors. Some 

discord is present in all communities, but the acknowledgement of conflict is necessary for 

democracy and for democratic communities. Community radio tries to air objectively all sides 

of a discussion without itself taking sides.  



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Similarly, Community radio as a matter of principle is to encourage open dialogue and 

democratic process by providing an independent platform for interactive discussion about 

matters and decisions of importance to the community. In essence, the core of democratic 

process is the ability of people to hear and make them heard. Community radio provides the 

forum for that to happen. This is consonant with the decentralization process in many countries 

that aims to bring democratic decision-making closer to the people concerned. And what is 

happening at the grassroots level as portrayed by the community (Fraser and Estrada, 2001). 

Therefore, Community broadcasting should promote innovation, creativity and diversity of 

content. In its structure and output, community broadcasting must reflect community’s cultural 

diversity and by doing so support greater tolerance, understanding and social cohesion. The 

third principle, according to Ngugi and Kinyua (2014), is localism. Community broadcasting 

by definition should rely on programming generated by local communities. Thus, the local 

people should be allowed to produce programmes locally in the language and style which is 

recognised and accepted by the community. Moves by the government to force minimum levels 

of local programming to all broadcasting illustrate the extent to which private and public 

broadcasters opt for networking (in news and entertainment). Ngugi and Kinyua (2014) give 

the last principle as independence. Community broadcasting stations, in principle, should be 

owned and operated by individuals or group (not-for-profit groups). Each licensed group has 

open membership and democratic decision-making practices. All stations must adhere to a 

sector code of practice that embodies the sector’s philosophy and secures their independence 

to serve a particular community, encourage members of the community served by it or persons 

associated with or promoting the interest of such community to participate in the selection and 

provision of programmes to be broadcast in the course of such broadcasting service.  

In the views of Fraser and Estrada (2001), the principal functions of community radio are to 

reflect and promote local identity, character and culture by focusing principally on local 



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content. Culture is how the people of a community talk about their past and their future. It is 

what they care about. Like life itself, culture is infinitely variable and constantly evolving. 

Community culture is also an artistic expression through local music, dance, poetry, theatre 

and storytelling. Local performers are encouraged to go on air uninhibited by considerations of 

the ‘professional standards’ they may have acquired from mainstream media. Culture is also 

language, so programming includes the languages of any minority groups in the community. 

The objectives of a community radio station are not restricted to purveying information but 

include tasks like looking for legitimacy in different languages and dialects while also bringing 

about cultural uniformity by integrating it. Time has testified to the accuracy of the claim that 

development is bringing about positive changes in the capacity of man. Development of man 

implies development of knowledge. That is possible only through means of mass 

communication. Community radios must preserve the history, achievement, local values and 

norms apart from conceding to the changes and transferring the past knowledge to future 

generations. They should be helping to move society onward by reflecting the best practices of 

the past while integrating the best practices taking place in society around them. Another task 

of community radios is to ensure knowledge management (Mainali et al., 2009). Mainali et al. 

(2009) list the following as the objectives of community radio stations:  

• To evolve a progressive and disciplined culture in support of justice and democracy by 

boosting the cause of national unity, pride and self-respect;  

• To identify and promote national language, arts, culture, and folk tradition;  

• To promote and mobilize traditional wisdom, knowledge, skill and competence;  

• To work as a dependable medium between people and government;  

• To evolve entrepreneurial culture by encouraging national industry and domestic market;  



39 
 

• Impress upon the need to evolve a culture of collective responsibility to uphold the rights of 

women and children;  

• To evolve consensus on the agenda of the development of the backward and marginalized 

section of people by prioritizing their voices and concerns;  

• To raise widespread awareness on issues like education, health, environment, sustainable 

development, human rights and community development;  

• To extend help in the marketing of agricultural produce by contributing to packaging and 

product development processes; and  

• To enhance the reach of the people vis-à-vis modern agricultural practices, science and 

technology, among others (Mainali et al., 2009). 

2.4.3 Contribution of community radio stations to the development 

2.4.3.1 Promoting Participatory Democracy 

Local/community radio gives community members access to information because as local 

radios provides access to the means of communication them. Local radios work as a common 

forum where people are given the opportunity to express themselves socially, politically and 

culturally. These radios prioritize important local issues. Mostly educational and 

developmental information are disseminated and exchanged. Further, it informs about the 

development activities in rural areas and exposes rural problems to government agencies and 

NGOs strengthening democratic practices in rural areas. Local radio/community radio 

encourage community members take the lead for their own cause. They can reinforce 

traditional forms of communication such as storytelling and group discussion enabling 

grassroots participation in policy-making and democracy. It also supports community members 

in introduction of income-generating activities (Banjade, 2007). 



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2.4.3.2 Voice of Voiceless  

Local/community radios are known as small community owned and locally managed. The 

philosophy of community radio is considered as the voice of the voiceless. It is considered as 

the medium which help raise voice of socially and economically deprived people and generally 

as a tool for development (AMARC, 1981). These radios serve people, encourage expression 

and participation and value local culture increasing access to information and empowering the 

communities. It works as a tool for highlighting their fundamental rights of marginalized 

communities and became the voice of the poor and the voiceless, the landless peasants and 

impoverished indigenous people (Wabwire, 2013). They demystify the scientific jargon and 

help explain the research and scientific information in simpler and ordinary language that 

people can easily understand. They assist the development of local communities by providing 

relevant information in local languages. One of the major benefits of such radio is empowering 

local people to speak up for themselves. Since local radios are one and only source of 

information in rural area