i 
 

 

POST COVID-19 AND TERTIARY EDUCATION: CHALLENGES AND 

PROSPECTS OF ONLINE LEARNING AT UNIVERSITY OF MEDIA, 

ARTS AND COMMUNICATION, INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM 

(UniMAC, IJ) 

BY 

 

FREDERICK ARTHUR 

MADC23068 

 

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF MEDIA, 

ARTS AND COMMUNICATION (UniMAC-IJ) IN PARTIAL 

FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA IN 

DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION 

DECEMBER 2024 

 



ii 
 

 

 



iii 
 

 

 

DEDICATION 

I dedicate this research work to the Almighty God for strength, guidance, and protection 

through this academic stage and for the wisdom, and knowledge bestowed on me in bringing 

this work to a successful end. Again, I dedicate this research to my lovely parents, relatives, 

and friends for their immense support and advocacies. I appreciate you and may God richly 

bless you. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



iv 
 

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

I wish to acknowledge the immense contribution of my supervisor, Prof. Modestus Fosu 

towards the successful completion of this work. His time, dedication, patience, comments and 

motivation encouraged me to successfully complete this work. God bless you Prof. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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ABSTRACT 

This study explored the challenges and benefits of online learning at UniMAC during the 

COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on the experiences of students, faculty, and administrative 

staff. The aim was to understand the difficulties encountered during the rapid transition to 

online education and assess its potential long-term role in the university's curriculum. The study 

employed the Constructivist Learning Theory. Data were collected through interviews with 

students, faculty, and staff, which were analyzed to identify key themes in the online learning 

experience. The study also highlighted several benefits. Students appreciated the flexibility of 

online education, as it allowed them to study at their own pace and balance academic, personal, 

and work commitments. Despite these benefits, the study also highlighted some key challenges. 

The findings revealed several significant challenges. Technological issues, including unstable 

internet connections, difficulty accessing online platforms, and lack of technical support, were 

major obstacles to effective learning. These issues disrupted the education process and hindered 

engagement. Students also struggled with motivation and participation due to the absence of 

face-to-face interactions. Faculty members found it challenging to gauge students' 

understanding and provide individualized support without in-person contact. Furthermore, both 

students and faculty noted the university's lack of preparedness for the sudden transition, with 

many feeling untrained and unsupported. Faculty members recognized the value of online 

teaching and learning as a supplement to the traditional approaches, offering more varied 

instructional strategies and accessible content delivery. Many participants expressed interest in 

integrating online learning into the long-term educational framework of the university, with a 

preference for a blended learning approach that combines online flexibility with in-person 

interaction. The study concluded that while the transition to online learning posed challenges, 

it also revealed the potential for greater flexibility, accessibility, and innovation in teaching. 

The study recommended improvements in technological infrastructure, faculty training, and 

student support services. The study also called for further research into the long-term effects 

of online learning and the role of social interaction in fostering a sense of community among 

online learners. 

 



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TABLE OF CONTENT 

 

DECLARATION BY STUDENT ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 

CERTIFICATION BY SUPERVISOR ............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 

DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................................... iii 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...................................................................................................................... iv 

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................... v 

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................. 1 

INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 1 

1.1 Background to the Study ........................................................................................................... 1 

1.2 Evolution of Online Learning in Higher Education ................................................................ 2 

1.3 Problem Statement ..................................................................................................................... 5 

1.4 Research Objectives ................................................................................................................... 6 

1.5 Research Questions .................................................................................................................... 7 

1.6 Scope of the Study ...................................................................................................................... 7 

1.7 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................ 8 

1.8 Organization of the Study .......................................................................................................... 9 

CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................................. 11 

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................. 11 

2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 11 

2.2 Empirical Review ..................................................................................................................... 11 

2.2.1 Opportunities and Challenges of Online Learning in Africa ......................................... 11 

2.2.2 Online Learning in Ghana ................................................................................................ 14 

2.2.3 The Long-Term Prospects of Integrating Online Learning ........................................... 17 

2.2.4 The Effectiveness of Online Learning for Practical, Hands-on Courses ....................... 20 

2.2.5 Challenges Faced by Students and Faculty in the Transition to Online Learning ....... 23 

2.3 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................... 28 

2.3.1 E-Learning Theory ............................................................................................................ 28 

2.3.2 The Significance of E-Learning Theory to the Study ..................................................... 31 

2.4 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 33 

CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................ 35 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 35 



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3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 35 

3.2 Research Approach and Design ............................................................................................... 35 

3.3 Participants and Sampling ....................................................................................................... 37 

3.4 Data Collection Methods .......................................................................................................... 39 

3.5 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 40 

3.6 Trustworthiness of the Study ................................................................................................... 41 

3.7 Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................................. 43 

3.8 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 44 

CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................. 45 

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................... 45 

4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 45 

4.2 Challenges of Online Learning ................................................................................................ 46 

4.2.1 Technological Access and Infrastructure ......................................................................... 46 

4.2.2 Engagement and Motivation ............................................................................................. 46 

4.2.3 University Support and Resources ................................................................................... 47 

4.2.4 Personal and Environmental Factors .............................................................................. 48 

4.2.5 Interactivity and Student Participation ........................................................................... 48 

4.2.6 Adaptation to Online Learning Platforms ....................................................................... 49 

4.2.7 Faculty and Instructional Challenges .............................................................................. 49 

4.3 The Long-Term Prospects of Integrating Online Learning into UniMAC's Curriculum. . 50 

4.3.1 Flexibility and Convenience of Online Learning ............................................................ 50 

4.3.2 Future Prospects of Online Learning ............................................................................... 51 

4.3.3 Improvement and Policy Suggestions .............................................................................. 51 

4.4 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 52 

CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................................... 53 

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................... 53 

4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 53 

5.1 Summary of the Study ............................................................................................................. 53 

5.2 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 55 

5.3 Recommendations .................................................................................................................... 56 

5.4 Areas for Future Research ....................................................................................................... 57 

Reference ..................................................................................................................................... 58 

Appendices ................................................................................................................................... 74 

 

 



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1 
 

CHAPTER ONE 

INTRODUCTION 

1.1 Background to the Study 

The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted education systems globally, further compelling 

universities to adopt online learning modalities out of the necessity of lockdowns, social 

distancing, and other restrictive measures (Babbar & Gupta, 2022). This move to digital 

learning platforms constituted a significant departure from traditional in-person classroom 

settings. Although partial integration of some online learning has occurred in some institutions, 

the pandemic compelled many rapid changes without time for planning or adaptation (Turnbull, 

Chugh, & Luck, 2021). This was potentially more burdensome for universities, such as 

UniMAC, which had conventionally relied on heavy face-to-face contact and the physical 

environment of learning. 

Whereas the integration of technology into education has been on the increase for over a 

decade, the pandemic accelerated the adoption of fully online teaching raising several questions 

about the effectiveness and sustainability of such an approach over a longer period (Gorina et 

al., 2023). The prevalence of digital platforms such as Zoom, Moodle, and Google Classroom 

has physical classroom teaching and learning but has also then exposed gaps in digital 

preparedness, infrastructural support, and pedagogical suitability (Alshammary & Alhalafawy, 

2022). This shift has raised critical questions about technology access, internet connectivity, 

and the preparedness of both students and instructors for virtual learning environments 

(Crawford et al., 2020; Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020). These challenges are particularly 

pronounced in regions with limited digital infrastructure, where the rapid transition to online 

education has exposed significant gaps in readiness and accessibility (Hodges et al., 2020). 



2 
 

For an institution like UniMAC, which has a highly pragmatic and hands-on curriculum in 

fields such as Journalism, film production, visual arts, and communication, the challenges 

brought forth by online learning were magnified as some of the courses demand in-person 

practical aspects. These disciplines traditionally depend on physical spaces for studios, labs, 

and theatres, where specialized equipment and in-person collaboration are essential. The 

pandemic required substantial innovation, as faculty and students were asked to transfer 

theoretical learning onto virtual platforms, often at the cost of practical training (Milovanović 

et al., 2020). Creative solutions such as virtual simulations and online peer collaborations 

emerged, but these techniques could not entirely replace hands-on, immersive work crucial in 

artistic and media production (Meng, 2023). 

Despite these challenges, the rapid shift to online learning during the pandemic created 

pathways that could actualize a brighter future for higher education (Simamora et al., 2020; 

García-Morales et al., 2021). This experience has indicated that flexibility in online learning 

can be combined with the benefits of face-to-face classroom instruction in a hybrid model. 

Lessons learned and consideration given to the refinement and integration of online learning 

into a long-term educational strategy are opportune in the post-immediacy period of the 

pandemic crisis for UniMAC, as it is for other institutions. This current study attempts to 

identify problems faced by UniMAC during the COVID-19 pandemic and evaluates the 

potential of online learning to be adopted as a feasible and long-term model in the creative 

professions. 

1.2 Evolution of Online Learning in Higher Education 

The COVID-19 outbreak only gave further impetus to online learning, already gaining 

momentum as a plausible mode of higher education (Qamar et al., 2024). Many universities 

were already applying a blend of face-to-face and online modes of learning to enhance 

flexibility and maximize the quality of student learning (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008; Singh, 



3 
 

Steele & Singh, 2021). This blended learning approach combines the strengths of traditional 

classroom instruction with the accessibility and convenience of online platforms, allowing 

institutions to better cater to diverse student needs and learning styles (Graham, 2013). This 

trend guaranteed diverse formats in course delivery to address various needs and learning 

preferences (Hakimi, Katebzadah & Fazil, 2024). 

This overnight pandemic broke the trend, however, and universities rapidly transitioned from 

traditional in-person instruction to a fully online format. For instance, institutions such as 

Harvard University, Stanford University, and the University of Cambridge swiftly adopted 

online teaching platforms to continue academic activities during lockdowns (Zhao et al., 2020; 

Marinoni et al., 2020; Wang, 2023). This shift highlighted both the potential and the challenges 

of large-scale digital education implementation across diverse institutional settings. Institutions 

like UniMAC had to switch to virtual learning platforms such as Zoom and Google Classroom 

to keep academic activities running (Sabakpo, 2023). Although digital learning platforms 

provided interaction in real time between students and instructors, there were a host of new 

challenges associated with this sudden change. Web-based learning has leveled some 

educational playing fields, but the new disparities have erected barriers for the many students 

who don't have reliable internet and devices (Jamil & Muschert, 2024). 

At institutions such as the University of Media, Arts, and Communication (UniMAC) in Ghana, 

as well as in many universities across low- and middle-income countries, most faculty members 

were not adequately trained or experienced in online pedagogy (Adarkwah, 2021). This lack of 

preparation made it challenging to guarantee the same level of engagement and academic rigor 

typically associated with traditional classroom settings (Adarkwah, 2021; Crawford et al., 

2020; Marinoni et al., 2020). Faculty faced difficulties navigating the technical demands of 

virtual learning environments, which affected their ability to deliver effective online education 

(Naimi-Akbar, Weurlander, & Barman, 2023).  



4 
 

Despite the challenges, the pandemic also revealed significant opportunities for reimagining 

higher education. It demonstrated that online and hybrid learning models can provide 

flexibility, accessibility, and resilience in the face of crises (Simamora et al., 2020; García-

Morales et al., 2021). These models have the potential to address diverse student needs while 

offering institutions a level of adaptability previously unexplored in traditional face-to-face 

learning environments (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020). However, for institutions like UniMAC, 

there remains an urgent need to understand the specific barriers encountered during this 

transition, evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies employed, and explore how online 

learning can be refined and integrated into long-term educational models (Fang et al., 2023; 

Qamar et al., 2024). 

This research is motivated by the need to ensure that creative and hands-on disciplines, which 

are central to UniMAC’s mission, are not left behind in the shift towards digital education 

(Milovanović et al., 2020). Fields such as journalism, film production, and visual arts rely 

heavily on practical, hands-on training, often requiring specialized tools, physical studios, and 

in-person collaboration (Meng, 2023Examining the challenges faced during the pandemic and 

assessing the potential of online and hybrid learning models, this study aims to provide 

actionable insights for improving the quality, inclusivity, and sustainability of education in 

creative disciplines such as journalism and media studies at UniMAC-IJ (Graham, 2013; 

Crawford et al., 2020). 

The findings are expected to inform institutional policies, enhance pedagogical practices, and 

provide a roadmap for integrating digital tools effectively into traditionally practical fields of 

study (Adarkwah, 2021). 

 



5 
 

1.3 Problem Statement 

The sudden shift to online learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic was quite difficult to handle 

for higher learning institutions globally, particularly those courses that were heavily reliant on 

practical and experiential learning (Crawford, 2023; Abbasnejad, Soltani, & Wong, 2024; 

Fitrianto & Saif, 2024). This challenge was experienced in various regions, including North 

America, Europe, Asia, and Africa, where institutions struggled to adapt their hands-on and 

practical courses to virtual formats (Wekullo, Kabindio, & Juma, 2024; Romero-Hall & 

Jaramillo Cherrez, 2023). The sudden change from traditional classrooms to virtual platforms 

made it difficult to maintain quality in education, particularly in fields reliant on hands-on 

training, physical collaboration, and specialized equipment (Abbasnejad, Soltani, & Wong, 

2024). 

This sudden shift took the digital infrastructure of many institutions by surprise, and therefore, 

from single internet connectivity to the unavailability of technology and unfamiliarity with 

online teaching methods, a host of problems were rampant (Wekullo, Kabindio, & Juma, 2024). 

These challenges presented a barrier to effective education in many practical disciplines, 

particularly those which required specialized equipment (Phulpoto et. Al., 2024). The faculty 

faced significant challenges in redesigning courses for online delivery, as many were not 

adequately trained in using digital tools effectively (Romero-Hall & Jaramillo Cherrez, 2023). 

Globally, institutions reported recurring issues, including insufficient digital infrastructure, 

unreliable internet connectivity, and limited access to specialized tools and equipment essential 

for practical training (Wekullo, Kabindio, & Juma, 2024; Phulpoto et al., 2024). Moreover, 

faculty members were often unprepared and inadequately trained to transition their teaching 

methodologies to digital platforms, further compromising the quality of education (Romero-

Hall & Jaramillo Cherrez, 2023). 



6 
 

Regionally, studies from North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa indicate varying degrees of 

success and failure in implementing online learning for hands-on disciplines (Wekullo, 

Kabindio, & Juma, 2024; Abbasnejad, Soltani, & Wong, 2024). While some institutions 

managed to mitigate challenges through hybrid learning models and increased digital support, 

others struggled to replicate in-person experiences in virtual settings, resulting in reduced 

student engagement, limited skill development, and compromised learning outcomes (Fitrianto 

& Saif, 2024; Maani et al., 2024). 

Despite the growing body of literature on online education during the pandemic, research 

remains fragmented, with limited focus on the long-term effectiveness of online education in 

highly specialized, practical-based disciplines (Maani et al., 2024; Abbasnejad, Soltani, & 

Wong, 2024). Additionally, institution-specific studies are scarce, leaving a gap in 

understanding how context-specific factors—such as institutional infrastructure, faculty 

preparedness, and student adaptability—affect the success of online learning (Romero-Hall & 

Jaramillo Cherrez, 2023). 

This study seeks to address this research gap by exploring the impact of online learning on 

specialized programs at UniMAC. It aims to examine the challenges, successes, and limitations 

encountered during the transition to virtual learning and assess whether online education can 

serve as a viable long-term alternative or supplement to traditional in-person education for 

practical and experiential disciplines. 

1.4 Research Objectives 

The objectives of this study are as follows: 

1. To identify the key challenges faced by students and faculty in the transition to online 

learning at UniMAC during the COVID-19 pandemic. 

2. To explore the long-term prospects of integrating online learning into UniMAC's curriculum. 



7 
 

1.5 Research Questions 

The following research questions guide this study: 

1. What challenges did students and faculty encounter during the shift to online learning at 

UniMAC? 

2. What are the potential benefits and limitations of online learning as a permanent feature of 

UniMAC’s educational model? 

1.6 Scope of the Study 

This study will focus specifically on how the transition to online learning, triggered by the 

COVID-19 pandemic, has impacted students and faculty at the University of Media, Arts, and 

Communication (UniMAC), particularly within its media, arts, and communication programs. 

The research will be limited to an in-depth examination of the immediate effects of the 

pandemic-induced shift on educational delivery and learning quality within these specialized 

fields. 

The study will investigate the challenges faced by both students and faculty in adapting to 

online learning, with a focus on how this shift has affected the practical, hands-on components 

of media and arts education. It will also assess the extent to which online learning platforms 

and teaching tools have been able to support the delivery of practical skills, and whether these 

can provide a sustainable model for future learning in practical disciplines. 

Furthermore, the study will explore the potential for a hybrid learning model that combines 

both online and face-to-face learning, considering how this model could address the limitations 

faced during the fully online transition. The research will examine whether this hybrid model 

might be more effective in maintaining educational quality while also addressing the need for 

practical engagement in courses that require hands-on training. 

 



8 
 

Ultimately, the findings of this study will help inform strategic decisions regarding the 

integration of online education into UniMAC's long-term curriculum. The research will provide 

insights into the areas where students may require further support or improvement, particularly 

in practical skill development, and offer recommendations for future pedagogical approaches 

to enhance teaching and learning in media, arts, and communication programs. 

1.7 Significance of the Study 

The research will contribute significantly to the literature on pedagogical strategies related to 

online learning, particularly within the disciplines at UniMAC, by offering a detailed 

exploration of the challenges and opportunities that emerged following the transition to online 

education due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As higher education institutions worldwide were 

forced to adapt to virtual learning environments, this study will specifically examine how the 

unique demands of media, arts, and communication courses were met, or not met, through 

online delivery. The findings will shed light on the difficulties faced by both students and 

faculty in maintaining the quality of education, including issues such as technological 

limitations, the lack of hands-on or practical learning opportunities, and challenges related to 

student engagement and participation. On the other hand, the research will also uncover the 

potential benefits and opportunities that arose from the shift, such as the development of new 

digital tools for learning, increased access to resources, and the expansion of collaborative 

learning through online platforms.  

The findings will identify specific shortcomings in the current educational delivery at 

UniMAC, particularly in practical-based courses such as media production, journalism, and 

fine arts, where hands-on training, collaboration, and real-world engagement are essential 

components of learning. The study will highlight the challenges students and faculty face in 

adapting to online learning environments, including the lack of access to specialized 

equipment, limited opportunities for collaborative projects, and difficulties in maintaining 



9 
 

active student participation. It will also explore how the integration of online and hybrid 

learning models into the curriculum could help bridge these gaps by offering flexible 

alternatives to traditional face-to-face instruction. The hybrid approach, which blends online 

platforms with in-person experiences, can potentially enhance hands-on training through 

virtual tools, foster collaboration through digital group work, and increase student engagement 

by providing more accessible and interactive learning formats. Furthermore, this research aims 

to offer valuable insights that can guide other institutions facing similar challenges in 

transitioning creative disciplines to online education, providing them with practical solutions 

and strategies for overcoming the inherent complexities of virtual learning in fields that require 

practical, immersive, and collaborative learning experiences. 

This research will also offer practical, evidence-based recommendations aimed at improving 

teaching methods within the context of online and hybrid learning, particularly in creative 

disciplines such as media, arts, and communication at UniMAC. These recommendations may 

include strategies for enhancing the effectiveness of online tools, fostering greater student 

engagement, and creating more opportunities for practical, hands-on learning in virtual or 

hybrid formats. Additionally, the research will contribute to the broader conversation at 

academic institutions about the changing landscape of higher education, offering insights into 

how teaching methods can evolve to accommodate the increasing reliance on digital platforms 

while still maintaining the core values of interactive, experiential, and collaborative learning.  

1.8 Organization of the Study 

This work is organized into five chapters. Chapter One introduces the research topic through 

the coverage of background, problem statement, research objectives and questions, scope, and 

significance. Chapter Two will review the related literature on online learning in higher 

education with a focus on the creative disciplines. Chapter Three describes the research 

methodology, which involves the research design, methods of data collection, and analytical 



10 
 

techniques used in evaluating the data collected. Where chapter four states the findings of the 

study and discusses them, and chapter five concludes by recommending to UuiMAC and other 

tertiary institutions. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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CHAPTER TWO 

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 

2.1 Introduction   

The COVID-19 pandemic indeed brought about new dimensions in the way tertiary education 

was conducted globally, because of which many institutions had to rush and abandon the 

traditional contact classroom setting for online learning environments. This chapter reviews 

the current literature on challenges and prospects related to online learning. It reviews the 

conceptual frameworks, theoretical underpinnings, and various empirical studies about the 

integration of online learning in higher education. It focuses on how online learning in creative 

disciplines meets or fails to meet educational objectives and lessons learned from the pandemic 

transition. 

2.2 Empirical Review   

2.2.1 Opportunities and Challenges of Online Learning in Africa 

Adedoyin and Soykan (2020) and Unwin et al. (2020) have discussed the infrastructural 

challenges of online learning in Africa and present complementary perspectives on the question 

of access to education. Adedoyin and Soykan (2020) employed a qualitative approach to 

investigate the barriers faced by higher education students and faculty in developing countries, 

highlighting unreliable internet connectivity and limited access to technological devices as 

major hurdles. Their findings show the dire need to address infrastructural disparities to make 

online education inclusive. Similarly, Unwin et al. (2020) conducted a quantitative study 

through survey data analysis in six African countries to determine the digital divide. While they 

did find that urban areas were benefiting from improved broadband access, rural regions 

remained significantly underserved. Both Adedoyin and Soykan (2020) and Unwin et al. 

(2020) acknowledge infrastructure as a barrier to online learning. However, while Adedoyin 



12 
 

and Soykan focus on addressing this issue through an educational institutional approach, 

Unwin et al. broaden the scope, framing infrastructure as part of a wider societal inequity. In 

applying these findings to Ghana, the urban-rural disparities noted by Unwin et al. remain 

particularly relevant, while the breadth of the institutional level in Adedoyin and Soykan could 

be extended to very specific educational contexts found within the country. 

Gunga and Ricketts (2020) and Mwangi et al. (2021) have explored some of the pedagogical 

challenges in this transition to online learning. Gunga and Ricketts (2020), for instance, drew 

on case studies of three East African universities University of Nairobi (Kenya), Makerere 

University (Uganda), and University of Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) using interviews and 

document analysis to highlight a lack of adequate training for instructors and institutional 

frameworks to support online pedagogy (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020; Wekullo, Kabindio, & 

Juma, 2024). They felt that such shortfalls hindered the quality of university education during 

the COVID-19 pandemic. Mwangi et al. (2021) conducted an integrated study at University of 

Nairobi (Kenyan) and adopted questionnaires and focus groups to establish how prepared the 

faculty members were for online teaching. While they also realized shortfalls in training, they 

indicated that faculty members were willing to adopt new methodologies, provided there is 

enough support. Both studies identify the need for capacity-building; however, Gunga and 

Ricketts stress systemic failures, while Mwangi et al. look at individual adaptability. Drawing 

from these studies and applying them to Ghana, one notices similarities in very limited training 

opportunities and infrastructure challenges in some institutions. However, field-specific studies 

will be more necessary, considering the unique context in Ghana with different levels of 

institutional preparedness and technological resources that would call for either systemic 

reforms or faculty-driven adaptability. This begs fundamental questions whether these East 

African examples can meaningfully capture varied Ghanaian experiences, and to what extent 



13 
 

such studies engage with broader linkages of policy, infrastructure, and faculty training in 

online pedagogies. 

Technological innovations have been highlighted as potential solutions for improving online 

learning by Kanwar et al. (2020) and Oketch et al. (2021). Kanwar et al. (2020) conducted a 

comparative analysis of open educational resource (OER) adoption across 12 African 

countries, demonstrating how OERs can provide cost-effective and scalable access to 

educational content. They concluded that OERs are particularly beneficial for underserved 

communities. On the other hand, Oketch et al. (2021) analyzed data from mobile learning 

programs in Nigeria and South Africa in a quantitative study. They found that mobile 

technologies effectively reached rural learners who might otherwise lack access to education. 

Both studies recognize the potential of technology in expanding educational access but 

emphasize different mechanisms. Kanwar et al. (2020) focus on content accessibility, while 

Oketch et al. emphasize the reach of mobile platforms. In Ghana, internet access is not only 

characterized by disparities between urban and rural areas, but also influenced by factors such 

as socioeconomic status, the availability of infrastructure, and the reliability of service 

providers. While urban centers tend to have relatively better internet access, challenges such 

as unstable connections and high costs persist, even in these areas. Open Educational Resources 

(OERs) may encounter limitations due to these infrastructure issues, and mobile learning, with 

its potential for greater flexibility and reach, could serve as a valuable tool in bridging these 

connectivity gaps, particularly in areas where traditional internet access remains unreliable 

(Boateng, 2020; Osei, 2021; Quaynor & Agyemang, 2022). Current research leaves a gap in 

understanding how these innovations could be integrated sustainably within Ghana’s unique 

technological and cultural framework, suggesting the need for field-specific studies to guide 

implementation. 



14 
 

The challenges of online learning in practical, hands-on disciplines are seen in the works of 

Olakulehin et al. (2019) and Agbo and Uche (2021). Olakulehin et al. (2019) did a case study 

on how virtual labs and simulations have been used in Nigerian engineering programs. They 

found that although such usage allowed a certain degree of practical engagement, it could not 

replace the hands-on experience. Agbo and Uche (2021) explored the use of augmented reality 

(AR) in media arts education in South Africa, employing an experimental design to evaluate 

its impact on student engagement and skill acquisition. Their findings showed that AR 

significantly enhanced learning outcomes but faced high costs and technical challenges. While 

both recognize the deficiency of the existing technologies in simulating practical learning 

environments, they propose different tools: simulations for engineering (Olakulehin et al., 

2019) and AR for the creative disciplines  (Agbo & Uche, 2021). For Ghana, the high cost of 

AR may make it unfeasible; however, virtual labs could be adapted more cost-effectively to 

engineering and other technical disciplines. However, neither study satisfactorily explores 

long-term sustainability or the institutional capacity to scale up such technologies in similar 

African contexts. This again brings out the need for localized research that can determine the 

most viable approaches. 

2.2.2 Online Learning in Ghana 

Effah and Ofori (2019) and Dzansi and Agyeman (2021) have expressed varied opinions on 

the infrastructural issues that impede online learning in Ghana. Using data from a survey 

carried out in three major universities, Effah and Ofori (2019) investigated the effects of 

internet connectivity on online education. The results showed erratic internet connectivity and 

high costs as two of the most serious obstacles to effective online learning. On the other hand, 

Dzansi and Agyeman (2021) adopted a mixed-methods approach to study the influence of rural-

urban disparities on digital access among secondary school students. While urban students 

benefited from relatively better connectivity and device access, rural students faced severe 



15 
 

limitations, including unreliable power supply. While both studies identify infrastructural gaps 

in Ghana, Effah and Ofori focus on higher education, while Dzansi and Agyeman address 

inequities at the secondary level, with an emphasis on broader societal implications. Although 

the findings of both studies are important in the understanding of the digital divide in Ghana, 

their applicability to different educational levels necessitates a nuanced approach in applying 

these insights to national policy or intervention strategies. Both studies leave further room for 

exploration of deeper regional nuances that define the infrastructure and how these particularly 

affect online learning outcomes. 

The adaptation of pedagogical practices to online learning in Ghana has been analyzed by 

Owusu-Ansah et al. (2020) and Mensah and Tetteh (2022). Owusu-Ansah et al. (2020) 

conducted a case study at the University of Ghana, using interviews with faculty to explore 

their experiences transitioning to online platforms during the COVID-19 pandemic. They 

found that many faculty members struggled due to inadequate training in digital teaching tools 

and methodologies. Mensah and Tetteh (2022) utilized a quantitative survey to assess online 

teaching practices across various tertiary institutions, revealing that younger faculty members 

were more adept at integrating digital tools compared to their older counterparts. While both 

studies highlight the need for capacity-building, Owusu-Ansah et al. emphasize immediate 

challenges faced during a crisis, whereas Mensah and Tetteh focus on generational differences 

in digital adaptability. This comparison highlights a gap in understanding the long-term 

capacity-building needs and the evolving nature of digital literacy among faculty in Ghana, 

suggesting that future research should further explore these generational disparities to inform 

targeted professional development programs. 

Antwi et al. (2021) and Adjei et al. (2022) investigated technological innovation for online 

education in Ghana, focusing on the use of multiple digital tools to enhance learning. Antwi et 

al. (2021) investigated the impact of LMSs used across Ghanaian universities through an online 



16 
 

survey administered to students and instructors. The results indicated that the LMS platforms 

increase access to course materials but are deficient in interactive elements that might engage 

learners. On the other hand, Adjei et al. (2022) conducted an experimental study to establish 

the use of gamification in online learning at a technical university. The findings showed that 

gamification enhanced significant motivation and participation among students, especially in 

technical and engineering courses. While both studies recognize the importance of 

technological advancements in online education, they emphasize different tools for enhancing 

learning: Antwi et al. (2021) focus on improving existing LMS platforms, while Adjei et al. 

(2022) propose gamification to enhance engagement. These findings hint at the need for more 

holistic and interactive learning tools within Ghana's online education system, possibly through 

merging LMS enhancements with gamification to solve both the problems of engagement and 

accessibility simultaneously. However, further field studies should be conducted to assess the 

long-term effectiveness of such innovations across diverse disciplines and institutions in 

Ghana. 

Boadu and Acheampong (2019) and Amponsah and Asare (2021) report on the challenges of 

delivering practical, hands-on courses online in Ghana. Boadu and Acheampong (2019) studied 

vocational training programs by interviewing instructors to determine how practical lessons 

were adapted to online formats. The findings indicated that the virtual demonstrations were 

helpful to an extent, but the lack of physical practice significantly hindered the learning of 

skills. Amponsah and Asare (2021) used a mixed-methods approach to study media arts 

education, focusing on how virtual reality was used for the simulation of hands-on experiences. 

Their findings showed increased engagement in lessons using virtual reality tools but were 

highly expensive to make them widely adopted. The studies have some limitations concerning 

the possibility of practical courses being taken online, but Boadu and Acheampong emphasized 

that in virtual demonstrations there is a great deal of inadequacy, while Amponsah and Asare 



17 
 

introduced the potential of VR, new technology which is to improve challenges. These two 

thus reveal that while emerging technologies may close certain gaps, high costs and access 

restrictions call for continued consideration of scalable and more cost-effective solutions for 

Ghana. 

2.2.3 The Long-Term Prospects of Integrating Online Learning  

Online learning in tertiary education has garnered significant scholarly attention, especially in 

recent times, due to the rapid shift toward digital education prompted by the COVID-19 

pandemic. For instance, Hodges et al. (2020) explore the sudden transition to online learning 

during COVID-19 and its implications beyond the pandemic. The authors used a qualitative 

approach wherein interviews with instructors and students were conducted to assess their 

experiences with the shift. The results indicated that while several institutions were able to 

transition to online platforms with ease, the rapid nature of this transition provided challenges 

that the vast majority of these were not ready or unable to handle infrastructure-wise. In 

comparison, a study conducted by Bozkurt and Sharma (2020) on the future of online learning 

applied a mixed-methods approach in analyzing both the immediate effects of the pandemic 

and the possibility of integration into the long term. Their conclusions were decidedly more 

upbeat: with the proper planning and investment in digital infrastructure, online learning had 

the potential to become an enduring valuable addition to higher education. While both share a 

belief in the transformative possibilities of online learning, they differ over how well-prepared 

institutions currently are to use this model effectively. These insights suggest that while 

immediate hurdles in online education need addressing, long-term strategies and investments 

could unlock its full potential. 

Another point of comparison is the long-term efficiency of online learning. Means et al. (2014) 

conducted a meta-analysis intending to establish efficiency in online learning when compared 

to face-to-face conventional instruction. In their study, they established that students in online 



18 
 

settings, especially in blended learning environments, performed slightly better than those in 

traditional classrooms. They attribute this to the flexibility and autonomy online learning has 

made it possible for students to learn at their own pace. However, the results of Bernard et al.'s 

(2014) 2014 meta-analysis were somewhat mixed. Indeed, their results showed that though 

some students were performing remarkably well in this online learning environment, others 

fared less well, particularly those who were plagued with low self-regulatory skills. Even 

though both studies recognize students' features as causes of either success or failure in online 

learning, they differ concerning the overall efficiency of online learning. Means et al. (2014) 

are far more optimistic about the potential of online learning than Bernard et al. (2014), who 

emphasize the need for increased support to ensure equity of outcomes. Means et al. (2014) are 

optimistic about online learning potential, while Bernard et al. (2014) stress the need for 

tailored support to ensure equitable results. These findings underscore the importance of 

considering the context and student preparedness when evaluating the applicability of online 

learning, particularly in settings like Ghana, where infrastructure and self-regulation challenges 

may be significant. 

On the institutional preparedness for moving courses online, Kebritchi et al. (2022) conducted 

a study focusing on the challenges educators faced in adapting their teaching methods and 

course content to online platforms. The researchers used a survey approach for data collection 

among university faculty and identified that many had to fight with technological problems, 

inadequate training, and lack of reorganization in courses to fit into the digital platform. On the 

other side, other authors like Rapanta et al. (2020) studied university instructors during the 

pandemic through interviews and surveys to understand the challenges they faced. Their 

conclusion agreed with Kebritchi et al.'s (2022) that the instructors were not well set for the 

shift to online learning. However, Rapanta et al. (2020) established that though the transition 

to online learning mode was not easy, lessons learned from that experience were useful in 



19 
 

informing subsequent steps into online learning. Both studies point toward increased 

institutional support and the training of educators, though Rapanta et al. (2020) make light of 

it, looking to challenges for growth in future improvement. In the context of Ghana, these 

findings suggest that while infrastructural and training gaps remain critical issues, they also 

present opportunities for developing more robust and resilient systems for online education. 

Another important aspect that has received considerable attention in the literature is the role of 

technology in shaping the long-term prospects of online learning. For instance, Al-Fraihat et 

al. (2020) employed a survey of students and instructors to assess the efficiency of the LMSs 

supporting online education. They suggested that LMSs are the major ingredients for online 

learning success since LMS provide infrastructure for content delivery, assessment, and 

communication. They also revealed that systems are still in need of improvement in terms of 

user interface and functionality. Conversely, O'Doherty et al. 2018 presented a qualitative study 

in the uses of digital tools within medical studies and concluded that though technology has 

enormous potential, it can never replace practical work in some fields. Both studies agree on 

the importance of technology in online learning, though they diverge in their assessment of 

limitations. Whereas Al-Fraihat et al. (2020) want to enhance existing systems, O'Doherty et 

al. (2018) discuss how much technology can replace face-to-face teaching. In the context of 

Ghana, these insights suggest a dual need: investment in improving LMS platforms for broader 

educational applications and a balanced approach that integrates technology without 

compromising the integrity of practical learning. 

A debate has happened about the accessibility and equity of online learning concerning its long-

term sustainability. Barbour et al. (2020) researched problems related to the accessibility that 

students faced while studying online. They followed a sequential mixed-methods approach and 

thus sent out a survey to students representing different socio-economic backgrounds. The 

authors reported that while online learning provided flexibility, it perpetrated inequalities, 



20 
 

particularly amongst students who were without reliable internet access or digital devices. 

Consequently, Sun et al. (2020) have focused their research effort on digital equity in online 

education and quantitively explored the digital divide between students from different regions 

and economic backgrounds. The findings also coincided to show that students from less 

privileged backgrounds are bound to lag in online learning environments Barbour et al. (2020). 

Both have indicated that online learning cannot be a permanent solution unless these institutes 

take appropriate steps to reduce the digital gap. While Sun et al. (2020) have advocated more 

proactive institutional policies in bridging this gap, Barbour et al. (2020) called for broader 

systemic changes to reduce the root causes of digital inequality. For Ghana, these findings 

highlight the importance of integrating both systemic and institutional strategies to ensure that 

online learning does not perpetuate educational inequities, particularly in rural and 

economically disadvantaged areas. 

2.2.4 The Effectiveness of Online Learning for Practical, Hands-on Courses  

The effectiveness of online learning in delivering practical, hands-on courses has been a subject 

of increasing scholarly debate, particularly as institutions transitioned to remote learning during 

the COVID-19 pandemic. A study by Wallace et al. (2020) explored the impact of online 

learning on science-based courses, where laboratory work is integral. Using a case study 

approach, they investigated how universities adapted lab work to virtual platforms through 

simulations and online experiments. The findings indicated that while online alternatives 

allowed students to continue their education, they lacked the depth and tactile experience of in-

person labs. Similarly, a study by Dede et al. (2020) examined the effectiveness of online 

learning in engineering courses, which also require hands-on training. Using surveys and 

interviews with students and instructors, they found that while theoretical knowledge could be 

delivered online, practical components were less effective due to the inability to interact with 

physical equipment. Both studies highlight the limitations of online learning for hands-on 



21 
 

disciplines, though Dede et al. (2020) focused more on the potential for hybrid models to 

address these issues. These findings are particularly relevant to Ghana, where resource 

limitations and infrastructural constraints may compound these issues, underscoring the need 

for innovative solutions like hybrid learning. 

Another key consideration is the role of technology in enhancing the delivery of practical 

courses online. Wu et al. (2021) explored the use of virtual reality (VR) in media arts programs, 

aiming to bridge the gap between theoretical and practical learning in an online environment. 

Their experimental study involved using VR tools for 3D modelling and animation courses, 

and the findings demonstrated that VR significantly enhanced student engagement and skill 

acquisition compared to traditional online platforms. On the other hand, Gregory et al. (2018) 

focused on the use of augmented reality (AR) in medical education, another field that relies 

heavily on hands-on learning. Their study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining 

surveys and observational analysis, and found that while AR can provide immersive 

experiences, it cannot fully replicate the physical interaction necessary for certain procedures. 

Both studies underscore the potential of immersive technologies to enhance online learning for 

practical disciplines, but they also reveal limitations in terms of fully replacing in-person 

experiences. Both studies emphasize the transformative potential of immersive technologies for 

practical online courses, yet they also acknowledge the inability of these technologies to fully 

substitute in-person learning. In contexts like Ghana, these insights suggest that while VR and 

AR may enhance learning in resource-rich environments, infrastructural and cost challenges 

must be addressed for widespread adoption. 

It is also suggested that online learning is effective variably across subjects. In a nursing 

education study, O'Doherty et al. (2018) reviewed the usage of online platforms concerning the 

delivery of some courses of nursing studies, both theoretical and practical. In this respect, the 

work by Raes et al. (2020) performed a qualitative methodology that interviewed students and 



22 
 

educators about their experience of working through online platforms, which were adequate 

for theoretical teaching purposes but seriously lacking in terms of skills training in the clinical 

professions, due to an absence of physical practice opportunities. On the other hand, research 

by Raes et al. (2020) has been conducted on the use of arts, especially those related to graphic 

design and photography. Their mixed-method study involved questionnaires and focus groups. 

Students seemed indeed to be able to learn to master their skills in software through online 

facilities, while it was collaborative and hands-on in making physical art. This is what they 

struggle with more. In that respect, the studies also offer insight into what is lost without 

physical contact. In this case, it becomes tough to replace it through online means, though much 

more in Raes et al. (2020) wrote about the challenges considering collaboration in creative 

education. These insights suggest that in contexts like Ghana, where online learning is 

expanding, addressing the needs of skill-intensive and collaborative fields will require 

innovative solutions and hybrid approaches to preserve the quality of education. 

Student motivation and engagement are other paramount issues that influence the effectiveness 

of online learning in practical courses. One study by Hamari et al. (2019) investigated how 

gamification might improve student motivation to take online courses, particularly those with 

practical components. The authors introduced game-like elements in an experimental design, 

such as points and leaderboards, into online engineering courses. Indeed, the outcomes showed 

that gamification increased student engagement and completion rates in general, especially for 

the more technical hands-on aspects of the courses. On the other hand, Kay et al. (2021) 

concentrated their research on motivation within online arts programs based on the study of 

how peer interaction and feedback became drivers for student outcomes. Their study, conducted 

through the use of questionnaires and interviews, used students in the creative disciplines to 

report lower motivation in online settings, for one, because the immediate collaboration and 

critique essential to practical learning are missing. Both agree that success in online learning 



23 
 

depends upon improving student motivation, but taking into consideration the nature of the 

course content, they recommend different paths forward. For a context like Ghana, where 

diverse practical disciplines are moving online, these insights suggest that tailored motivational 

strategies aligned with the course's practical requirements are essential for sustaining 

engagement. 

Lastly, faculty perspectives on the effectiveness of online learning for practical courses are 

essential for understanding its broader impact. A study by Kebritchi et al. (2017) surveyed 

university instructors in fields that require hands-on learning, such as engineering and health 

sciences. The findings revealed that instructors faced significant challenges in adapting their 

courses to online platforms, particularly in replicating the hands-on components. Similarly, 

Rapanta et al. (2020) conducted interviews with faculty in media and communication 

programs, focusing on their experiences during the shift to online learning. While both studies 

found that instructors struggled with the transition, Rapanta et al. (2020) highlighted that media 

and arts faculty were more optimistic about the potential for online learning to continue in a 

blended format. Both studies emphasize the need for greater support and training for faculty 

but differ in their outlook on the long-term viability of online learning for practical disciplines. 

These findings are particularly relevant to settings like Ghana, where practical courses in 

various fields are shifting online, suggesting that while faculty challenges are universal, the 

potential for blended models may be more feasible for certain disciplines like media and 

communication, requiring less reliance on hands-on practice. 

2.2.5 Challenges Faced by Students and Faculty in the Transition to Online Learning   

The sudden transition to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic presented numerous 

challenges for both students and faculty. A study by Adedoyin and Soykan (2020) sought to 

explore these difficulties by focusing on higher education institutions in developing countries. 

Using a qualitative approach that involved interviews with students and faculty, the study found 



24 
 

that limited access to reliable internet and technological tools significantly hindered online 

learning. Similarly, a study by Bao (2020) examined the transition to online learning in Chinese 

universities during the pandemic. This quantitative study used surveys to assess student and 

faculty experiences and found that while internet access was less of an issue, the challenge of 

adjusting to new pedagogical methods and technologies was prominent. While both studies 

highlight difficulties in the shift to online learning, Adedoyin and Soykan (2020) emphasize 

infrastructural challenges in developing countries, whereas Bao (2020) focuses on the 

pedagogical adjustments required in more developed regions. This suggests that while the 

infrastructural challenges in developing countries like Ghana are more immediate, regions with 

better technological infrastructure may face more issues with adapting teaching strategies and 

maintaining effective learning environments. Both studies are crucial, but their findings 

underscore the need for context-specific solutions—investing in digital infrastructure in 

developing countries, while in more developed regions, the focus could be on enhancing 

pedagogical training and adapting to online teaching methods. 

The other major challenge during the transition was how students could be motivated and kept 

engaged with learning. Xie et al. (2020) conducted a study on the factors that impact student 

engagement in online learning environments in the United States. Using a mixed-methods 

approach-integrating both surveys and focus groups referred to interaction and isolation as 

major challenges. In contrast, the study by Johnson et al. (2021) aimed to investigate online 

learning engagement by students in Europe; the researchers were more interested in the aspects 

of media and communication programs. The survey-based methodology was implemented in 

this research. It reported that the most challenging students in terms of trying to encourage their 

engagement come from creative disciplines because such curricula lack hands-on learning 

activities and collaboration with peers. In both research studies, though, the effort of 

maintaining students engaged in activities is quite challenging; it points out different aspects, 



25 
 

with Xie et al. (2020) referring to social interaction and Johnson et al. (2021) pointing out the 

pragmatic and collaborative perspective of learning in creative fields. Their findings highlight 

how the practical, collaborative nature of creative curricula becomes especially difficult to 

replicate in an online environment, which may also be relevant for creative programs in Ghana. 

While both studies agree on the importance of engagement, they differ in their focus—Xie et 

al. stress social interaction, while Johnson et al. underscore the pragmatic and collaborative 

aspects, which are crucial for fields like media arts and design. These findings suggest that 

strategies to boost engagement must be tailored to the nature of the discipline, with more 

emphasis on social interaction in general education and on hands-on, collaborative activities in 

creative fields.  

Faculty was also scrambling during this transition as the majority were under immense pressure 

to transition their pedagogical teaching approaches to online methods of teaching. Hodges et 

al. (2020) discussed the concept of "emergency remote teaching" and its impact on faculty 

during the pandemic. Their qualitative study, based on interviews with faculty members, found 

that the majority of teachers struggled since they did not receive prior training in online learning 

pedagogies, thereby stressing them and reducing their efficacy in teaching. A similar study by 

Trust and Whalen (2020) investigated how K-12 and higher education faculty in the United 

States adapted to online learning. In fact, by surveying 800 educators, they realized that though 

many faculty managed to adapt through self-learning and peer support, a significant number 

felt unprepared and overwhelmed. Although both studies make the growing difficulty for the 

faculty explicit, the work by Hodges et al. focuses more on the pedagogical challenge, while 

the work by Trust and Whalen puts in the foreground the emotional and psychological stress 

generated in this transition. This emotional burden is also a crucial consideration in Ghanaian 

higher education, where faculty may face similar stresses without adequate institutional 

support. While both studies underscore the difficulties faced by faculty, Hodges et al. 



26 
 

emphasize the lack of pedagogical preparedness, whereas Trust and Whalen broaden the scope 

by exploring the emotional impact of the transition. This suggests that addressing both the 

pedagogical and emotional needs of faculty is key to ensuring a smoother and more effective 

transition to online learning. 

The issue of assessment in an online environment also posed significant challenges for both 

students and educators. A study by Gikandi et al. (2020) explored the effectiveness of online 

assessment methods in higher education institutions. Using a case study approach, they found 

that online assessments often failed to capture the complexity of student understanding, 

particularly in disciplines that require critical thinking and practical skills. Conversely, a study 

by DeVaney et al. (2020) focused on the challenges of conducting assessments in business 

education during the pandemic. Their mixed-methods study revealed that while traditional 

exams could be adapted to online formats, assessing practical skills such as teamwork and 

presentation abilities was more difficult. Both studies highlight the inadequacy of online 

assessment methods but focus on different aspects: Gikandi et al. (2020) emphasize the 

challenges in creative and practical fields, while DeVaney et al. (2020) focus on the difficulty 

of assessing soft skills in business education. This is particularly important for fields that 

demand collaborative work and interpersonal communication. Both studies underscore the 

inadequacy of online assessments in their respective contexts, but they differ in the types of 

skills they focus on—Gikandi et al. highlight practical and creative skills, while DeVaney et al. 

focus on the challenges of assessing soft skills. These insights point to the need for innovative 

assessment methods in online learning, tailored to the specific skills required by each 

discipline. 

Finally, there has been well-documented psychological setbacks for both students and faculty 

in this transition to online learning. A study by Son et al. (2020), on the psychological impacts 

of online learning on students during the COVID-19 pandemic, adopted a survey-based 



27 
 

approach. The findings revealed that students reported higher levels of anxiety and stress due 

to feelings of isolation, academic pressures, and uncertainty about the future. Similarly, a study 

by Tasso et al. (2021) focuses on the psychological burden among faculty, particularly the 

balance of professional and personal duties. In this qualitative study, through interviews with 

university faculty, they found that many educators struggled with burnout, stress, and feelings 

of inadequacy in providing effective instruction in online settings. While both identify a 

significant psychological burden resulting from this transition to online learning, Son et al. 

(2010) it was an approach towards what the students' experiences would be, whereas Tasso et 

al., on the other hand, focus covered more the opposite: the approach considered the mental 

health challenges of the faculty. Together, these studies highlight the widespread psychological 

impacts of the rapid shift to online education, stressing the importance of addressing these 

challenges to ensure the well-being of both students and instructors.8d 

While many studies have explored issues related to challenges and benefits within the context 

of online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, few have looked at how online platforms 

could best serve practical courses with heavy emphases on creative work, such as media, arts, 

and communication. General difficulties faced by students and faculty concerning this 

transition to online learning are the subjects of many, but research by Adedoyin & Soykan 

(2020) and Hodges et al. (2020) has, up until now, covered underexplored ground: the 

specialized needs of creative programs reliant upon physical collaboration and specialized 

tools. This current study fills this gap by conducting an exploratory investigation of how online 

learning can be better adapted to serve practical, creative education at the University of Media, 

Arts, and Communication (UniMAC). 

 



28 
 

2.3 Theoretical Framework   

2.3.1 E-Learning Theory 
 

E-Learning theory has become a critical framework for understanding the application of digital 

technologies in education. As educational environments increasingly rely on technology, this 

theory explores how electronic tools and internet-based platforms can enhance learning 

experiences. It addresses how online learning, digital classrooms, and other technological 

innovations can be leveraged to support both traditional and non-traditional learning. While E-

Learning theory emerged with the growth of digital technologies in education, its development 

has been influenced by many theorists and educational paradigms.  

E-Learning, as a formal theory of learning, does not have a singular founding moment or a 

specific theorist who is credited with its development. Instead, it emerged gradually as 

educational technologies began to evolve, particularly in the late 20th century. With the rise of 

the internet and multimedia applications, educators and researchers recognized the potential 

for technology to reshape learning experiences. The term "E-Learning" itself began to gain 

traction in the 1990s as a way to describe learning experiences facilitated through digital tools 

such as learning management systems (LMS), online courses, and virtual classrooms (Palloff 

& Pratt, 2003). 

While no single individual can be credited with originating E-Learning theory, key contributors 

such as Richard E. Mayer, Terry Anderson, and George Siemens have influenced its 

development. Mayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (2005) explored how 

multimedia learning can enhance understanding and retention, providing important insights 

into how E-Learning environments can be optimized. Terry Anderson's work on online 

collaborative learning has emphasized the importance of interaction and social presence in 

online environments (Anderson, 2008). George Siemens, known for his Connectivism theory, 



29 
 

which focuses on learning networks and digital connections, further developed ideas about how 

technology can foster knowledge building and sharing in decentralized online settings 

(Siemens, 2005). 

E-Learning theory is based on several core assumptions that guide its principles and 

application. One of the most fundamental assumptions is that technology can significantly 

enhance the learning experience. Digital tools such as interactive content, videos, and 

simulations provide a dynamic learning environment that traditional classrooms often cannot 

replicate. E-Learning enables students to access a variety of multimedia content, making 

learning more engaging and accessible (Mayer, 2005). 

Another key assumption of E-Learning is that it places the learner at the centre of the 

educational process. This learner-centered approach encourages self-directed learning, where 

learners can pace their education, access resources independently, and choose from various 

learning paths. This assumption aligns with constructivist principles, suggesting that learners 

learn best when they are active participants in constructing their own knowledge (Palloff & 

Pratt, 2003). 

E-Learning also provides greater flexibility in terms of time and place. With online learning 

platforms, students can access content at their convenience, which is particularly beneficial for 

non-traditional learners, such as working professionals or those with time constraints. This 

asynchronous learning model allows learners to study at their own pace without being bound 

by scheduled class times (Anderson, 2008). 

Another important assumption is that digital environments can foster collaborative learning 

experiences. E-Learning platforms support collaborative tools like discussion forums, group 

projects, and virtual classrooms, encouraging students to interact with each other and with 



30 
 

instructors. These interactions foster critical thinking and problem-solving skills, as learners 

engage in group discussions and peer-to-peer feedback (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2001). 

Finally, E-Learning systems provide extensive data on student engagement and performance, 

which can be used to personalize learning and inform instructional design. This emphasis on 

continuous improvement through real-time feedback and data analytics allows instructors to 

adjust the learning experience based on learner progress (Siemens, 2005). 

Despite the numerous advantages of E-Learning, there are several criticisms associated with 

its practical implementation. One of the primary criticisms is the lack of face-to-face 

interaction. Critics argue that online learning can be isolating, as it removes the in-person 

interactions that are common in traditional classrooms. Social interaction, spontaneous 

discussions, and non-verbal communication all contribute to the learning experience, and the 

absence of these elements in E-Learning environments can lead to a feeling of disconnection 

or disengagement (Moore & Kearsley, 2012). 

Another criticism relates to technological barriers and accessibility issues. E-Learning assumes 

that all learners have access to reliable internet connections and the necessary technology, such 

as computers or mobile devices. However, many students in rural areas or disadvantaged 

communities may lack access to these resources, creating a digital divide that limits 

participation in online learning (Selwyn, 2011). 

Additionally, student engagement and motivation can be challenging in E-Learning 

environments. Without the structure of in-person classes, some students may struggle with time 

management, leading to procrastination and incomplete coursework. The self-paced nature of 

online courses may also result in lower levels of motivation for some learners (Garrison et al., 

2001). Furthermore, low levels of interaction with instructors and peers can hinder motivation 

and a sense of belonging in the learning community. 



31 
 

Moreover, critics argue that E-Learning places too much emphasis on technology, sometimes 

at the expense of quality pedagogy. While technology can facilitate learning, it is the underlying 

instructional design that determines the effectiveness of the learning experience. When E-

Learning technologies are used without sufficient consideration of pedagogical principles, they 

may fail to foster meaningful learning outcomes (Laurillard, 2013). 

 

Finally, assessment of learning outcomes in E-Learning environments presents challenges. 

Traditional forms of assessment, such as exams and essays, may not always be suitable for 

online learning contexts. Moreover, assessing collaborative skills, engagement, and deeper 

learning in digital spaces can be more complex than in face-to-face environments (Siemens, 

2005). 

2.3.2 The Significance of E-Learning Theory to the Study   

The significance of E-Learning theory to the study of online learning in tertiary education, 

particularly in the context of post-COVID-19 education, cannot be overstated. E-Learning 

theory provides a critical lens through which we can understand the broader implications and 

challenges of adopting online learning platforms and digital tools in higher education 

institutions. As universities around the world, including the University of Media, Arts, and 

Communication, Institute of Journalism (UniMAC, IJ), transition from traditional classroom-

based teaching to digital or hybrid learning environments, E-Learning theory offers a 

framework for analyzing both the opportunities and limitations associated with such 

transitions. 

Firstly, E-Learning theory emphasizes the importance of learner-centered approaches, which 

resonate strongly with the current shift towards more personalized, flexible learning 

experiences. As the COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the need for online education, it became 



32 
 

clear that traditional instructional methods could not effectively meet the diverse needs of 

learners in remote settings. E-Learning theory, by focusing on self-directed learning, allows 

students to engage with course materials at their own pace and according to their individual 

learning styles. This flexibility is crucial for institutions like UniMAC, IJ, where a diverse 

student body, including working professionals and international students, requires an education 

system that adapts to various schedules and learning preferences. 

Furthermore, E-Learning theory underscores the role of technology-enhanced learning tools in 

facilitating deeper engagement and understanding. Online platforms, interactive media, and 

multimedia learning resources enable students to access learning materials that are often more 

engaging than traditional textbooks or lectures. This is particularly important for the study of 

the challenges and prospects of online learning in media and communication fields, where 

digital tools are already integral to the industry. By applying E-Learning theory, the study can 

explore how platforms and tools can support the development of essential skills such as digital 

literacy, creativity, and collaborative work, which are critical in the context of media and 

communication studies. 

E-Learning theory also highlights the significance of collaborative learning environments. 

Online platforms facilitate interaction among students, instructors, and peers through 

discussion forums, group projects, and synchronous learning sessions. These collaborative 

opportunities are central to the educational experience at UniMAC, IJ, particularly for 

programs that require teamwork, discussion, and critical analysis, such as journalism, media 

studies, and communication. The theory’s focus on social presence and interaction supports the 

notion that students can still build meaningful relationships and learning communities in online 

environments, even when physical interaction is not possible. Understanding this aspect of E-

Learning theory is essential in addressing concerns about social isolation and engagement in 

remote learning settings. 



33 
 

Additionally, the data-driven approach inherent in E-Learning systems offers a valuable insight 

into the continuous improvement of learning experiences. With advanced learning management 

systems and analytics, instructors can monitor student performance in real time, offering 

personalized feedback and tailored interventions. For a university like UniMAC, IJ, where 

diverse learners might require varying levels of support, the ability to track student progress 

and adapt teaching strategies accordingly is essential for ensuring academic success. E-

Learning theory’s emphasis on the use of technology for assessment and personalized learning 

can help in the development of effective strategies for student engagement and retention in an 

online learning environment. 

Finally, the critical reflections on the limitations of E-Learning theory are also significant for 

this study. The challenges posed by technological barriers, digital divides, and the potential 

lack of face-to-face interactions are important considerations in the transition to online learning 

at UniMAC, IJ. By understanding these limitations, the study can offer informed solutions and 

recommendations for overcoming such barriers, ensuring that online learning remains 

inclusive, equitable, and effective for all students, regardless of their technological resources 

or personal circumstances. 

2.4 Chapter Summary   

This chapter begins by exploring the increasing importance of online learning in higher 

education, particularly in the context of post-COVID-19 education. It introduces the shift 

towards digital and hybrid learning environments, highlighting the challenges and 

opportunities faced by institutions like the University of Media, Arts, and Communication 

(UniMAC, IJ). The chapter then delves into E-Learning theory, a framework that examines the 

role of technology in enhancing learning experiences. It outlines the key contributions of 

theorists such as Richard E. Mayer, Terry Anderson, and George Siemens, and emphasizes the 

learner-centered approach, flexibility, and collaborative learning aspects of E-Learning. The 



34 
 

chapter concludes by discussing the significance of this theory in addressing the needs and 

challenges of online learning, particularly in creative fields like media and communication 

studies. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



35 
 

CHAPTER THREE 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

3.1 Introduction 

This chapter presents the methodology adopted to gather and analyze data for this study. The 

research design, selection of participants, collection of data, procedures used in analyzing data, 

and ethical issues are presented. This chapter intends to elaborate on the specific sections of 

the methods used to accomplish the research. 

3.2 Research Approach and Design 

The study employed a qualitative research design to explore the challenges and prospects of 

individuals involved in online learning at the University of Media, Arts, and Communication 

(UniMAC) in the post-COVID-19 era. Creswell (2013) defines qualitative research as a means 

for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human 

problem. It is a process of inquiry that begins with a problem or issue, collects detailed data in 

a natural setting, and analyzes the data to develop a deeper understanding of the phenomenon. 

Similarly, Denzin and Lincoln (2011) describe qualitative research as a set of interpretive, 

material practices that make the world visible. These practices transform the world and make 

it visible in different ways, by focusing on meanings, experiences, and the practices of people 

in specific contexts. Qualitative research is the most suitable approach for studying this 

phenomenon because it provides the researcher with access to in-depth social contexts and 

researchers understand how individuals interpret and navigate their experiences (Lim, 2024). 

Creswell (2014) argues that qualitative research is specifically helpful for an in-depth 

understanding of the social process because of the meanings participants give to their 

experiences. This research design was well-suited for capturing the nuanced perspectives of 

students, faculty, and administrators on post-COVID-19 online learning, as their experiences 



36 
 

with the transition from face-to-face or blended learning to digital education differed. While 

quantitative research focuses on the quantification of phenomena and the establishment of 

patterns based on statistical analysis, qualitative research explores how people interpreted and 

made sense of their surroundings (Amaratunga et al., 2002). Individual narratives and 

perceptions provided a deeper understanding of the shifts occurring within educational settings 

at UniMAC. 

The research was guided by the philosophical paradigm of interpretivism, which places great 

emphasis on understanding the subjective meanings that individuals attach to their experiences 

(Ryan, 2018). This paradigm assumes that reality is socially made and constructed through 

human relationships, implying that the experience of individuals exists within a particular 

context (Berger & Luckmann, 2016). This theoretical stance was particularly relevant to this 

study, as it aimed to capture how participants at UniMAC made sense of the transition to online 

learning in the aftermath of the pandemic. An interpretivist approach recognizes that any such 

experiences are not monolithic per se but intersubjective constructions based on personal, 

institutional, and cultural levels (Denzin, 2008). 

The interpretivist paradigm is also in agreement with the study's objective, which sought an 

understanding not only of the technical facts of online learning but also the personal and 

institutional factors contributing to its success or failure (Ponelis, 2015). In this respect, this 

research adopted the latter framework to gather rich and detailed data representative of the 

complexity of online learning in a post-COVID-19 context. Whereas some participants might 

consider online learning a highly convenient and flexible alternative to traditional classroom 

settings, others may view digital inequality, lack of engagement, or institutional 

unpreparedness as major concerns (Tate & Warschauer, 2022). As Creswell and Poth (2017) 

mentioned, interpretivist research is particularly suited to studies that explore such varied and 

subjective experiences. It allows for an open and flexible investigation of participants' realities. 



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This study employed a case study approach to gain an in-depth understanding of the challenges 

and opportunities faced by students, faculty, and administrative staff during the transition to 

online learning at UniMAC. A case study design provides a comprehensive and contextualized 

examination of a particular instance or phenomenon within its real-life context (Yin, 2014). 

Focusing on UniMAC as a case, the research offered insights into the experiences of 

individuals within this specific institution, contributing to broader discussions on the 

implementation of online learning in higher education in post-pandemic settings. 

This justifies the use of in-depth face-to-face interviews as the primary method for data 

collection. Face-to-face interviews allowed for deep elicitation of participants' views while 

remaining open to new and emerging themes that may not have been envisaged at the beginning 

of the study. Focusing on interpretivism created many opportunities for the researcher to remain 

flexible and responsive to individual participant perspectives, yielding a complex dataset that 

revealed the challenges and possible prospects associated with the usage of online learning at 

UniMAC. The case study approach, combined with interpretivism, facilitated a nuanced 

understanding of the experiences and perceptions of those directly involved in the transition to 

online education. 

3.3 Participants and Sampling 

The population for this study comprised individuals directly involved in online learning at the 

University of Media, Arts, and Communication (UniMAC) during and after the COVID-19 

pandemic. This included students, faculty members, and administrative staff across various 

departments and roles. Given the diversity of experiences and challenges associated with the 

transition to online learning, participants were selected to reflect a cross-section of 

perspectives. For students, the focus was on those at different academic levels – diploma, 

undergraduate and postgraduate – across multiple faculties. Faculty members were chosen 

from diverse departments to capture variations in teaching approaches and subject-specific 



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challenges. Administrative staff were drawn from offices such as academic affairs and ICT 

services, as these departments played pivotal roles in implementing and supporting the online 

learning framework. 

Purposive sampling was employed in this study to ensure the selection of individuals best 

positioned to provide rich, detailed insights into the research questions (Campbell et al., 2020). 

Patton (2002) defines purposive sampling or judgmental or selective sampling, as a technique 

where researchers choose participants based on specific characteristics aligning with the 

research objectives. Similarly, Etikan, Musa, and Alkassim (2016) describe this as a non-

probability technique in which participants are deliberately chosen for their knowledge or 

experiences relevant to the study. This method enabled the researcher to target individuals with 

direct exposure to online education at UniMAC, ensuring data that addressed the complexity 

of the research focus (Ritchie, Lewis, & Elam, 2013). 

Although all students at UniMAC participated in online learning during the pandemic, 

purposive sampling focused on those who had unique experiences, such as students facing 

digital inequality or those heavily engaged with online platforms for advanced coursework. 

Faculty members who extensively taught online courses or encountered significant challenges 

in adapting to digital teaching methods were prioritized. Administrative staff directly involved 

in the planning, support, and evaluation of online learning initiatives were also included. This 

approach ensured that the sample provided diverse and meaningful insights beyond general 

experiences (Wladis, Wladis, & Hachey, 2014). 

For this study, a total of 15 participants were selected, comprising five students (two 

undergraduate and three postgraduate), five faculty members from various departments, and 

five administrative staff from roles such as academic affairs and ICT services. The expanded 

sample size included participants from various roles such as faculty, administrators, and 



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technical support staff ensuring a balanced representation of perspectives and providing 

comprehensive insights into the institution's adaptation to online learning. The participants 

were chosen based on their level of involvement and experience in areas relevant to online 

education or higher education practices during and after the COVID-19 pandemic (Gikandi, 

Morrow, & Davis, 2011). The expanded and varied participant pool provided a well-rounded 

view of the challenges and prospects associated with online learning in a post-COVID-19 

tertiary education environment.  

3.4 Data Collection Methods 

The data for this study were collected through semi-structured interviews, which provided a 

robust framework from which to capture the complexity of participants' experiences related to 

online learning within the post-COVID-19 context (Almajali et al., 2022). Semi-structured 

interviews come with predefined questions with the flexibility to explore the topics in further 

detail (Blandford, 2013). The interviews allow the researcher to capture rich qualitative data 

and leave room for the participants to express themselves, which is important in studies that 

aim to explain personal experiences of a delicate nature. Significantly, open-ended questions 

allow the interviewer to get more elaborative responses from the participants that they might 

not have obtained had they conducted more structured interviews. 

All interviews were carried out face-to-face according to the preference and convenience of the 

participant. According to Creswell (2014), face-to-face interviews can create a personal touch 

between the researcher and participants, hence making them give more candid responses to the 

research questions. This mode of interview also offered several advantages such as 

convenience and reaching participants from different geographical locations (Hew & Cheung, 

2020). The interviews were designed to ensure that the interviewees were comfortable and open 

with their views. Each interview was recorded and then later transcribed for detailed analysis. 



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These semi-structured interviews were used in the collection of data on challenges and 

prospects faced by participants in adapting to online learning at UniMAC. The nature of these 

data is qualitative, and thematic analysis was appropriate to explore patterns and themes that 

recur in participants' experiences (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This approach not only increases the 

depth of data richness but also constitutes the foundation for grounding findings in evidence-

based on participants' actual experiences and perceptions, acting as useful insights for future 

practices in online education. 

3.5 Data Analysis 

Thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that is decent, especially in the finding, analyzing, 

and reporting of patterns or themes from qualitative data. The data analysis for this study 

applied thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Thematic analysis is an organized but 

iterative process made up of several distinct steps contributing to depth and richness in findings. 

First, the researcher started by familiarizing himself with the data; he did this by transcribing 

all interviews verbatim. This was a necessary step, in which the researcher was able to 

intimately familiarize himself with the content to gain a broad understanding of participants' 

experiences and views. The repeated review of transcripts by the researcher provided an 

opportunity to learn about the subtle variations in the narratives of the participants that would 

lead to a more informed analysis. 

Following familiarization, initial coding of the data was done. The systematic process of 

identifying key phrases, concepts, and ideas linked directly to the research questions was done 

when coding the interview transcripts at this stage. All text was given some code to reduce the 

meaning of participants' responses, thus enabling the researcher to fragment the data into 

manageable units that are easy to analyze. Such a process is indicative in qualitative research, 

in that it outlines the significant patterns and ideas that might have been blind to other forms 

of observations. This gradually made sense in that the researcher was working through the data 



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to ascertain which codes resonated with core themes relevant to the objectives of the study and 

thus facilitated an in-depth comprehension of the participants' experiences with online learning. 

The themes that the codes identified during the earlier phase were developed once the initial 

coding was done. It involved the identification of broader themes that encompass the narratives 

and patterns across the dataset. Themes were then identified that reflected the most common 

problems on challenges participants faced while adapting to online learning, opportunities 

developed as a result of this change, and COVID-19 impacts on educational experiences. 

Subsequently, all identified themes were reviewed for correctness in their representativeness 

of the data by recombining and splitting themes into categories of relevance to research 

questions. The themes were then named and defined by the researcher to provide a coherent 

framework that guided the presentation of findings and thus contributed to the overall 

conclusions of the study. This rigorous analytical process underlines the importance of thematic 

analysis in drawing meaningful insights from qualitative data. 

3.6 Trustworthiness of the Study 

The trustworthiness of qualitative research aims to ensure the credibility of the findings and 

the overall validity of the study (Anney, 2014). As a result, in this research, several strategies 

were very thoroughly considered to enhance trustworthiness, focusing on four key dimensions: 

credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability (Shenton,2004). Each of these 

dimensions is valuable in reinforcing both the integrity of the process of research and 

authenticity regarding data collection. 

The researcher was aware of the principles of credibility in all instances of this study. To 

enhance this, the researcher had to spend a substantial amount of time with the respondents 

over semi-structured interviews so that the experiences shared by the respondents were brought 

out in a great deal of detail and recorded accordingly to be as accurate as possible. This helped 



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in not only gaining rapport but also generated more substantial data. Further, member checking 

was done in that participants were asked to review their transcripts for the accuracy of their 

responses. It allowed the participants to clarify or add to their statements, thereby enhancing 

the credibility of results since participants would have confirmed that what was recorded 

represented their experiences and views. 

Another criterion of essential importance that was addressed in the study is the issue of 

transferability (Trompette et al., 2014). The researcher gave an elaborate description of the 

setting in which the research took place, indicating what uniquely distinguished both the 

participants and the environment in which the investigation was undertaken. This kind of 

contextual information helps other researchers evaluate the degree to which the findings apply 

to other settings or populations. Such thick description allows readers to draw comparisons or 

contrasts with their research settings and thus promotes a wider understanding of how the 

findings may have relevance beyond the direct study.  

Dependability and confirmability were also ensured to enhance the general trustworthiness of 

the study (Ghafouri & Ofoghi, 2016). An audit trail of transparency and clarity was maintained 

in recording the research procedure, right from the selection of the participants to data 

collection and data analysis. This is a source record that enables replicability by other 

researchers, a hallmark of dependable research. To address confirmability, the researcher 

maintained a reflexive journal during the study. The journal serves as a recording space of bias, 

assumptions, and personal reflection to build on self-awareness of the need for critical 

examination of the researcher's influence on data collection and interpretation. Recognition and 

reflection on personal biases helped the researcher to ensure that personal feelings did not 

influence the outcomes of the findings as much as the data from the voices of the participants.  



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3.7 Ethical Considerations 

Ethical issues have been brought to the fore in the whole research process and have guided the 

study in protecting the rights and welfare of participants (Liamputtong, 2006). Ethical research 

practice promotes integrity in the study and engenders trust between the researcher and 

participants. Some of the ethical considerations have been strictly followed as a way of 

ensuring the study was responsibly and respectfully conducted. 

The ethical foundation of the present research was informed consent (Lomelino, 2015). Every 

potential participant had been provided with an information sheet containing a description of 

the purpose of the study, procedures, and the rights of the participant before he or she agreed 

to take part in the research. Such transparency constitutes an important factor in helping 

participants become aware of what their involvement entails. Full time was given to reflect on 

participation and the opportunity to question the study was always available. Written informed 

consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement in the research. It was 

fully ensured that their participation was voluntary, informed, and based on a clear 

understanding of the study's purpose and any potential ef