INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM POWER AND INFLUENCE IN THE BOARDROOM: AN EXAMINATION OF PUBLIC RELATIONS INFLUENCE WITHIN THE C-SUITE BY AUGUSTINA MAWUFEMOR YAWA DANSU MPSPRM22010 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF MEDIA, ARTS AND COMMUNICATION-INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (MPHIL) IN STRATEGIC PUBLIC RELATIONS MANAGEMENT. SEPTEMBER, 2024 SUPERVISOR(S): DR. ALBERT ADJEI ANANI-BOSSMAN DR. PRISCILLA TEIKA ODOOM i DECLARATION STUDENT’S DECLARATION I, Augustina Yawa Dansu, affirm that the dissertation presented herein represents my independent research conducted under the guidance of Dr. Albert Adjei Anani-Bossman and Dr. Priscilla Teika Odoom. All citations and sources referenced in published materials have been properly acknowledged, and no portion of this work has been previously submitted for any other academic qualification. SIGNATURE: DATE: 5th September, 2024 SUPERVISOR(S) DECLARATION We hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this work were conducted under the supervision in compliance with the prescribed guidelines of the Institute of Journalism. NAME(S) OF SUPERVISOR(S) 1. Dr. Albert Adjei Anani-Bossman SIGNATURE: DATE: 04/09/2024 2. Dr. Priscilla Teika Odoom SIGNATURE: DATE: September 4, 2024 ii DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my cherished family, with profound gratitude to my beloved husband, Mr. Dickson Nuku Dansu, and our four wonderful children, Deborah Dinam Dansu, Collins Amenuveve Dansu, Emmanuel Edem Dansu, and Peniel Melike Dansu. I also extend heartfelt appreciation to my dear mother, Madam Mary Sitsofe Gablibo, my younger sister, Albertina Emefa Sape, my amazing sister-in-law, Mrs. Olivia Kafui Yamoah, my niece, Esther Etornam Adzimah, and my mother-in-law, Mrs. Paulina Agbavor. Their unwavering support has been a source of strength and inspiration. May the Almighty God bless and protect us all for His glory. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I extend my deepest gratitude to the Almighty God for His boundless grace and mercy, which have sustained me throughout this academic journey, culminating in the successful completion of the program. To my esteemed supervisors, Dr. Albert Adjei Anani-Bossman and Dr. Priscilla Teika Odoom, I express my profound appreciation for your invaluable guidance, patience, and counsel. Your unwavering support has been instrumental in my academic achievement, and for that, I am eternally grateful. I also wish to acknowledge and thank all the lecturers at the Department of Public Relations, the School of Graduate Studies and Research (SoGSaR) – University of Media, Arts and Communication-Institute of Journalism, for their dedication and contribution to my academic growth. Special gratitude goes to Mr. Osafo Wiredu for his unwavering support. My sincere appreciation extends to the Public Relations Heads and Decision-makers of the various institutions who generously contributed to this project. I am deeply thankful for their cooperation and assistance. I am also indebted to my colleague, Madam Sophia Kudjorji, for her selfless support and companionship throughout our academic journey. Finally, but most importantly, I want to express my heartfelt gratitude to my husband and children. Your unwavering encouragement and understanding have been my source of strength. I am profoundly thankful for your immense support. May God bless each and every one of you abundantly. iv ABSTRACT Public relations is essential for building and maintaining relationships between organizations and stakeholders, shaping perceptions, and influencing behaviours. Despite its strategic importance, PR often struggles to exert influence during decision-making processes, particularly in the Ghanaian context, where it is not consistently integrated into strategic initiatives. This study investigated the role of PR in strategic decision-making within organizations, focusing on the challenges practitioners face and strategies to enhance the profession’s influence. The study employed a qualitative methodology, engaging 15 senior practitioners from private and state- owned organizations, along with 5 decision-makers, making a total of 20 participants. Interviews were conducted using a semi-structured interview guide, providing a comprehensive understanding of PR’s current state, barriers to its strategic integration, and actionable recommendations for improving its effectiveness. Key findings revealed that while practitioners emphasized the need for PR’s strategic integration, decision-makers had varied perceptions – ranging from viewing PR as a mere communication tool to recognizing its strategic value. There was a consensus on PR’s crucial role in reputation management and stakeholder engagement. The findings underscored PR’s influence within the boardroom, highlighting its potential to shape corporate policy and guide organizational narratives. The study recommends a more integrated role for PR in organizational strategy and governance. v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ................................................................................................................................ i SUPERVISOR(S) DECLARATION ................................................................................................ i DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................. iii ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................... iv CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.0 Background to the Study ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Statement of the Problem ......................................................................................................... 5 1.2 Research Objectives and Questions ...................................................................................... 6 1.2.1 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................................ 6 1.2.2 Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 7 1.3 Significance of the Study ....................................................................................................... 7 1.4 Scope of the Study .................................................................................................................. 9 1.5 Organization of the Study ................................................................................................... 10 1.6 Operational Definition of Concepts .................................................................................... 11 1.7 Literature Review ................................................................................................................ 13 1.7.1 Public Relations and the Dominant Coalition ..................................................................... 13 1.7.2 Factors that Impact Public Relations Influence within the C-Suite ................................... 14 1.7.3 Public Relations Integration into Decision-Making Processes ........................................... 16 1.8 The Excellence Theory and The Role Theory ................................................................... 17 1.9 Research Methodology and Design .................................................................................... 18 1.10 Data Collection Method and Technique.............................................................................. 20 1.11 Data Analysis Techniques ................................................................................................... 21 1.12 Ethical Consideration .................................................................................................... 22 1.13 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 24 CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 25 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 25 vi 2.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 25 2.1 Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................................... 26 2.1.1 Excellence Theory ................................................................................................................. 26 2.1.1 Role Theory ........................................................................................................................... 30 2.1.2 How the Excellence Theory and Role Theory Complement Each Other ............................ 32 2.2 Conceptualizing Public Relations .......................................................................................... 33 2.2 1 Public Relations and the Dominant Coalition ..................................................................... 35 2.2.2 Factors that Impact Public Relations Influence within the C-Suite ................................... 37 2.2.3 Public Relations Integration into Decision-Making Processes ........................................... 38 2.3 Power and Influence ............................................................................................................ 39 2.3.1 Power ..................................................................................................................................... 40 2.3.2 Types of Power ................................................................................................................ 40 2.3.3 Influence ................................................................................................................................ 42 2.3.4 Influence Tactics ................................................................................................................... 43 2.4 Power/Influence and Public Relations ............................................................................... 45 2.5 Public Relations’ Influence Inhibitors/Challenges ............................................................... 47 2.6 How Public Relations Enacts Power/Influence ..................................................................... 52 2.7 Public Relations and the C-Suite ........................................................................................... 54 2.8 Empirical Review .................................................................................................................... 57 2.9 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................... 63 CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................................ 64 METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................................... 64 3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 64 3.1 Research Paradigm .............................................................................................................. 64 3.1.1 Interpretivism ......................................................................................................................... 66 3.2 Research Approach .............................................................................................................. 67 3.3 Population and Sampling .................................................................................................... 69 3.3.1 Population for the Study ....................................................................................................... 69 3.3.2 Sampling Design and Technique .......................................................................................... 69 3.4 Data Collection Methods ..................................................................................................... 71 vii 3.4.1 Interviews ............................................................................................................................... 71 3.5 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 72 3.5.1 Thematic Analysis ................................................................................................................. 72 3.6 Ethical Considerations ......................................................................................................... 72 3.7 Chapter Summary................................................................................................................ 73 CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................... 75 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................................... 75 4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 75 4.1 Demographic Information of Participants ......................................................................... 75 4.2 RO1: To Explore How Public Relations Practitioners and Decision-Makers Perceive Public Relations and Its Influence in Strategic Decisions ......................................................... 76 4.2.1 Understanding of Public Relations ....................................................................................... 76 4.2.2 Role of Public Relations ........................................................................................................ 79 4.2.3 Placement of Public Relations .............................................................................................. 83 4.3 RO2: To Analyse How Public Relations Practitioners Achieve Strategic Influence within Their Organizations ...................................................................................................................... 86 4.3.1 Perceived Influence and Power of Public Relations ............................................................ 86 4.3.2 Public Relations and Organizational Culture ...................................................................... 89 4.3.3 Public Relations Role in Decision-Making and Organizational Culture ........................... 91 4.3.4 Public Relations Influence and ‘Most’ Effectiveness .......................................................... 95 4.3.5 Public Relations Influence and ‘Least’ Effectiveness ......................................................... 98 4.3.6 Public Relations Expected Role .......................................................................................... 101 4.4 RO3: To Explore the Factors That Either Facilitate or Hinder the Ability of Public Relations Practitioners to Achieve Influence and Power Within the C-Suite ....................... 104 4.4.1 Relationship with C-Suite and Influence ........................................................................... 104 4.4.2 Challenges to Public Relations Influence within the C-Suite ........................................... 108 4.4.3 Facilitators and Barriers to Influence ................................................................................ 111 4.5 Chapter Summary.............................................................................................................. 114 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................... 116 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................... 116 5.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 116 viii 5.1 Summary of Key Findings ................................................................................................. 116 5.2 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 119 5.3 Recommendations .............................................................................................................. 120 5.4 Areas for Future Research ................................................................................................ 122 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 123 APPENDIX 1 ................................................................................................................................. 147 INTERVIEW GUIDE ................................................................................................................... 147 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background to the Study Public relations (PR) is an effective means of building and maintaining relationships between an organization and its publics by branding its (public relations) communication to influence and affect behaviours of stakeholders. Public relations is thus defined as a strategic communication discipline and a management function that focuses on building and maintaining positive relationships between organizations and their various stakeholders, including the public, media, customers, employees, investors, and government bodies (Public Relations Society of America, 2012). It involves the creation and dissemination of information to shape public perception and influence opinions about an organization, individual, or entity (Cole, 2023). Following its strategic nature, public relations scholars concur, that public relations is a significant function that is multifaceted within an organization following its role to various stakeholders including the C- Suite. For instance, public relations is crucial for the C-Suite because it helps in managing and enhancing the organization’s reputation, provides strategic insights, manages communication during crises, and ensures that the company’s messages and actions are consistently aligned with its goals and values (Leonard, 2019). The C-Suite also relies on public relations to effectively engage with stakeholders, advocate for the organization, and maintain a positive public image (Kaleel, 2020). Deducing from the above, public relations can be said to be an essential component to the success of achieving organizational objectives when strategic decisions are made and guided by the dominant coalition (Tam et al., 2020). Reber and Berger (2006) and Badi et al. (2020) agree that once a communications practitioner becomes an important member of the dominant coalition, they can influence well-developed strategies and tactics to shape organizational decisions, 2 actions and ideologies. As a C-suite employee, the practitioner brings his expertise in communication, relationship management, and strategic thinking to help organizations effectively engage with different stakeholders, manage reputations, and navigate complex communication challenges (Macnamara, 2019). This defines the important role that public relations plays in an organization and contributes to the bottom line. Despite the importance of public relations to organizational success, studies over the years show that, that practitioners often lack power and influence during strategic decision-making processes within organizations (Aang Koswara et al., 2023; Oksiutycz, 2022; Anani-Bossman, 2021; Reber & Berger, 2006). Although a considerable number of work has been done to contribute to the body of knowledge concerning public relations in Ghana, results largely show public relations is rarely practiced at the strategic level (Anani-Bossman, 2021b). Anani-Bossman (2021b) assert that, the profession still needs considerable improvement to achieve excellence, as marketing is given more importance than public relations. In addition, public relations practices focus more on technical aspects, in which practitioners receive instructions from the dominant coalition rather than assuming management roles in policy-making. In an organizational context, the concept of the dominant coalition refers to a group of influential factions that hold significant power and authority within specific settings, such as government entities or corporations (Zhang & Greve, 2019). The autonomy attributed to this coalition allows them to significantly shape decision-making processes and policy outcomes within the organization by virtue of controlling critical resources and exercising collective influence. Corroborating this viewpoint, 3 Mithani and O’Brien (2020) assert, that the dominant coalition signifies a collective of individuals at the helm, endowed with the authority to define and steer the organization’s missions and goals. This group are composed of top managers who exercise decision-making control to maintain the organization’s existing state of affairs. A nuanced understanding of power, as expounded by Ohlsson et al. (2021), reveals that within this context, power extends beyond the conventional notion of imposing authority. It evolves into a strategic ability to positively influence subordinate behaviour, rallying them toward achieving the organization’s shared objectives (van Baarle et al., 2022; Hornung & Höge, 2021). This perspective aligns with Tanner’s (2022) contention that power often gravitates toward individuals who adeptly address the organization’s needs and demands. However, it remains confined to a select few within the organization (Wang et al., 2021). Consequently, how well an organization performs is highly dependent on the decisions and actions of the top management group stakeholders (Kraus & Ferrell, 2016). Kraus and Ferrell (2016) further accentuate the crucial role of top management with an emphasis on effectively communicating strategies to stakeholders. Rimkutė (2022), emphasize that an organization’s public reputation is essentially moulded by the interpretation and communication of top management’s behaviour by public relations practitioners. This symbiotic relationship between the dominant coalition and public relations extends further, with the latter serving as an advisory entity, deeply intertwined with the coalition’s essence (Blotnicky & Thurlow, 2021; Rimkutė, 2022). Building on this foundation, it is evident that most organizations depend on public relations for their internal and external communication needs (Sriramesh & Verčič, 2019). However, a notable discrepancy emerges as public relations practitioners often find themselves lacking influence in high-level decision-making processes, despite their presence within the C-suite (Ihlen & Raknes, 2020). The mere presence of public 4 relations practitioners in the dominant coalition, without wielding substantial influence, diminishes their importance (Falasca & Helgesson, 2020). Moreover, the existence of public relations practitioners at the top executive table can be characterized as a “revolving door” (Neill, 2012, p. 1). In addition, gaining access or a seat in the dominant coalition does not necessarily ensure that the input from public relations managers will be valued and considered in crucial organizational policy or decision making (Yue, 2019). Following this, McGahan (2019) strongly submit that it is important to have experts in an organization who can tactfully and professionally manage issues and relationships with the organization’s stakeholders, as these stakeholder demands require it. The narrative takes a pragmatic turn as Knight and Sweetser (2021) concur with McGahan’s (2019) stance, advocating for an empowered presence of public relations within the dominant coalition to exert significant influence. Furst (2011) augments this argument, attributing the ability to wield power and influence to the provision of persuasive support and beneficial resources. Influence, according to Furst (2011), becomes the cornerstone of success. Tam et al. (2020) extend this discourse by emphasizing the necessity of empowering public relations practitioners, and considering them as pivotal components for effective strategic management. This approach implies an inclusive strategic management process, drawing perspectives from different units, including public relations, and thereby fostering diverse solutions and decision-making contributions. Tandoh et al. (2022) emphasized the criticality of positioning public relations practitioners at the apex of organizational hierarchy. However, a series of obstacles hinder the effective participation of these practitioners in strategic decisions. Challenges include the lack of recognition by top management, resistance from line managers, insufficient resource allocation, unfavourable structural placement, negative perceptions about information leakage, and organizational cultural dynamics (Tandoh et al., 2022). Anani-Bossman (2021) aligns with the perspectives of the 5 excellence theory, advocating for the strategic involvement of public relations practitioners in the planning process. Austin and Pinkleton (2015) further accentuate the value of robust public relations in strategic management, noting its potential to enhance decision-making and consequently benefiting both the organization and its stakeholders. Similarly, Bajalia (2020), amplifies the significance of empowering public relations practitioners and their role in strategic management, highlighting the pivotal role of relationship cultivation in enhancing organizational effectiveness. As contemporary organizations rely on public relations as a vital and valuable department, the way it is conceptualized has been impacted by the differing backgrounds of the heads of communication departments in many organizations (Anani-Bossman & Mudzanani, 2018). This has led to a superficial understanding of public relations practice and has limited the influence and power of many public relations practitioners at the strategic level. Stemming from the above, the purpose of this study is to investigate the dynamics of public relations inclusion in the dominant coalition of organizations, with a focus on its role in strategic decision-making, challenges practitioners face, and potential strategies for improving the evolving role of public relations’ influence and impact in contemporary business environment. 1.1 Statement of the Problem Public relations is fundamentally about nurturing beneficial relationships and understanding between organizations and their stakeholders (Skinner et al., 2016). To succeed, public relations needs an integrated approach where practitioners are part of the dominant coalition, comprehending stakeholder needs and environmental influences (Skinner et al., 2016). This approach, scholars argue, ensures operational continuity and is vital for an organization’s reputation. Strategic communication executed by public relations practitioners is pivotal not only 6 for shaping stakeholder perceptions but also for enhancing the credibility and strategic role of practitioners (Juliane & Ansgar, 2015). Despite these assertions, numerous organizations fail to recognize the strategic role of public relations (Gitau & Chebii, 2020). For instance, research shows that in China, public relations is not considered a significant contributor to organizational value creation, leaving practitioners relegated to lower-level tasks and limiting their influence (Yue, 2019). In South Africa, though senior public relations practitioners offer insights into stakeholders and facilitate conversations with the dominant coalition, their feedback often goes unimplemented (Ferreira & Engelbrecht, 2022). This discrepancy hampers the potential contribution to strategic decisions by practitioners. A similar scenario unfolds in Ghana, where public relations is predominantly practiced at a tactical level, hindering the influence of practitioners within the C-suite (Tandoh et al., 2022; Anani- Bossman, 2021). Moreover, existing research in the African context focuses on dialogic communication, crisis management, and public engagement, with little attention to public relation’s strategic dimension (Nutsugah & Anani-Bossman, 2023). This study aims to address these gaps by exploring factors that either enable or hinder public relations practitioners’ capacity to exert influence within the C-suite and investigate perceptions of the public relations profession from the vantage points of both practitioners and decision-makers. By delving into these areas, the study seeks to contribute to the African and global public relations scholarship and offer insight into public relations practices within the regional context. 1.2 Research Objectives and Questions 1.2.1 Objectives of the Study The following objectives define the study: 7 i. To explore how public relations practitioners and decision-makers perceive public relations and its influence in strategic decisions. ii. To analyse how public relations practitioners achieve strategic influence within their organizations. iii. To explore the factors that either facilitate or hinder the ability of public relations practitioners to achieve influence and power within the C-suite. 1.2.2 Research Questions To achieve the above set objectives, the study aims to find answers to the following questions; i. How do public relations practitioners and decision-makers perceive public relations and its influence/power? ii. How do practitioners achieve strategic influence with their organizations? iii. What are the factors that facilitate or hinder practitioner’s ability to achieve influence? 1.3 Significance of the Study Research plays a critical role by providing valuable and pertinent information to stakeholders to help them make informed decisions (Solanki, 2022). Therefore, this inquiry aims to provide a contemporary understanding of public relations practices in the African context, specifically in Ghana. The study will offer unique insights and perspectives on public relations practice in this part of the world by addressing the specific challenges and opportunities that will ultimately enhance the practice of public relations in the country and contribute to the broader African landscape. The findings of this study will serve as invaluable resources that can empower public relations practitioners, facilitators, and students with a comprehensive understanding of the role and impact 8 of contemporary public relations practices. By delving into the intricacies and nuances of the profession, these findings offer a wealth of knowledge that can greatly benefit individuals involved in public relations. The findings of this study will also shed light on the current landscape of public relations, providing insights into the evolving dynamics, challenges, and opportunities that practitioners face in their daily work. By understanding the contemporary context of the profession, practitioners can adapt their strategies and tactics accordingly, ensuring that they remain effective and relevant to their organizations. Additionally, the findings of this study will provide important insights into improving the perception of the public relations profession, which is undervalued in many organizations, especially Ghana. The findings significantly hopes to offer an opportunity to address misconceptions and elevate the profession’s reputation. Armed with this knowledge, practitioners can advocate for the importance of public relations within organizations, highlighting their role in building and maintaining relationships, managing reputation, and driving positive outcomes as key members of the C-suite. The findings of this study will serve as a useful resource for public relations students, equipping them with a solid foundation of knowledge and understanding, as they embark on their careers. Thus, insights from this research can help students develop a well- rounded understanding of the profession, its best practices, and their potential impact. This knowledge positions them to enter the field with confidence, equipped with tools to excel in their future roles, and contribute to the advancement of the profession. Finally, this study will present an opportunity for authorities, regulatory bodies, and policymakers to develop effective policies and strategies to address the challenges faced by public relations practitioners. Specifically, it focuses on public relations practitioners’ limited power and its influence on management’s strategic decisions. This opportunity will enable the development of 9 initiatives that will empower public relations practitioners and recognize the value of public relations within organizations in Ghana. Thus, by implementing targeted policies, public relations practitioners can play a more significant role in shaping organizational direction and communication strategies, which will ultimately improve organizational outcomes. 1.4 Scope of the Study The study’s scope is the parameters in which it will operate (Simon & Goes, 2013). The issue at hand is the phenomenon where many public relations practitioners struggle to wield influence and power, even when they are present during crucial managerial decisions at executive meetings. This issue is juxtaposed against the critical role of public relations, as described by Morehouse (2021), in fostering symbiotic relationships between organizations and stakeholders. Anani-Bossman’s (2021) study underscored that despite the progress of public relations in Ghana, strategic-level practice remains uncommon in many organizations. This study’s domains will thus be constrained to the following criteria: i. Examine the extent of public relations influence within the C-Suite. ii. Comprehend the strategies deployed by top practitioners to exert influence within the C- Suite. iii. Analyse the impact of public relations influence on strategic management and decision- making processes from the Ghanaian perspective. iv. Identify the barriers and constraints hindering numerous practitioners from influencing the C-Suite. Two theoretical perspectives, namely dominant coalition theory and role theory, will underpin this study. Role theory will illuminate the dynamics of expectations, behaviours, and influence between public relations professionals and C-suite executives. Concurrently, dominant coalition theory will 10 elucidate power dynamics and decision-making processes in the C-suite, shedding light on how public relations practitioners establish their presence within this influential cohort. The study will encompass public relations practitioners and decision-makers from both public and private sectors in the Greater-Accra region. A purposive and expert sampling method will facilitate the selection of participants with first-hand experience and expert knowledge in strategic management and decision-making. Qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews, delving into participants’ perceptions of public relations’ influence within the C-suite, their employed strategies, encountered challenges, and influence on decision-making. The ensuing qualitative data will be subjected to thematic analysis to unveil key themes and patterns. 1.5 Organization of the Study This study will be organized into five chapters to provide a comprehensive exploration of the phenomenon. Chapter One establishes the foundation by offering contextual information, introducing the research problem, outlining research objectives and questions, and highlighting the study’s significance and potential contributions. The scope of the study will be defined to set boundaries, and the chapter will present an overview of subsequent chapters’ content and organization. In Chapter Two, a thorough review of pertinent literature will be conducted to foster a deeper comprehension of the subject. Relevant theories, concepts, and prior studies connected to the phenomenon will be examined, potentially leading to the development or adaptation of a conceptual framework and analytical lens for interpreting findings. 11 Chapter Three will delineate the chosen research approach and design. It will detail aspects such as the study’s target population, the proposed sampling method, the determined sample size, and the instruments for data collection. Additionally, the techniques and procedures to ensure the validity of research findings will be outlined. Chapter Four will be dedicated to the collection, examination, and analysis of data, culminating in the presentation of results. This chapter will effectively link the research objectives with the study’s findings, providing a cohesive narrative. Chapter Five will encompass several components. It will summarize the research findings, drawing meaningful conclusions from the analysis. The implications of these findings will be discussed, offering insights into their broader significance. Moreover, the chapter will present suggestions or recommendations for further studies that can build upon this research’s insights, paving the way for continued exploration of the topic. 1.6 Operational Definition of Concepts C-suite (Dominant Coalition): Refers to the highest-ranking executives within a company or an organization. It is an abbreviation for C-level suite or C-level executives, where the ‘C’ stands for Chief. These individuals typically occupy the most crucial and influential positions within the company. They bear the responsibility of making significant strategic decisions that have a profound impact on the overall direction and success of the organization (Cassidy, 2018). For example; Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Chief Operating Officer (COO), Chief Financial Officer (CFO), Chief Marketing Officer (CMO) among many others, form the C-suite. 12 Strategic Public Relations: A strategic communication practice that focuses on managing and maintaining a positive image, reputation, and relationship between an organization or individual and its publics (Anani-Bossman, 2021). Public relations thus involves creating and disseminating information to various target audience of an organization, with an objective to influence the perception and attitudes of the publics towards the organization. Practitioner: A public relations specialist who works in the aforementioned field and responsible for planning, executing, and managing strategic communication initiatives to build and foster positive relationships between their clients or an organization and its publics. Excellence: According to Tam et al. (2020), excellence in the practice of public relations is the highest standard of performance and effectiveness of public relations communication strategies, which involves consistently achieving outstanding results by managing communication, building relationships, and maintaining a positive reputation for an organization or an individual. The scholars attributed advisory influence, executive influence, success of programmes and strategies, and competence, as key factors that contribute to public relations excellence. Influence/Power: Refers to the ability of public relations practitioners to shape opinions, attitudes, and behaviours of target audiences, as well as the capacity of practitioners to be an integral part of the C-suite to make strategic decisions and affect outcomes within an organization (Whiting, 2022). Strategic Decision: As opined by Emanuele and Stefania (2011), strategic decision in public relations and communication involves the processes of identifying, evaluating, and selecting the most effective courses of action to achieve set objectives and address communication challenges 13 faced in organizations. It thus requires a comprehensive understanding of the organization, its publics and the communication landscape (Gregory & Willis, 2022). Return On Investment (ROI) in Public Relations: This refers to the measurement of the value generated from public relations efforts in relation to the resources invested. It quantifies the effectiveness and impact of public relations activities by assessing the financial outcomes or benefits achieved compared to the costs incurred (putu viola kanno, 2020). 1.7 Literature Review 1.7.1 Public Relations and the Dominant Coalition Public relations is the strategic communication process that organizations use to establish and maintain mutually beneficial relationships with various stakeholders, including the public, media, customers, employees, investors, and more (Roberts-Bowman, 2016), with the primary goal to shape and manage the perception of an organization, its products or services, and its activities in the eyes of these stakeholders (Tam et al., 2020). The concept of the “dominant coalition” is often used in organizational and management theory and refers to the group of individuals within an organization who hold the most power, influence, and decision-making authority (Mithani & O’Brien, 2020). This coalition typically includes top executives, key managers, and other influential figures who have a significant impact on the organization’s strategic direction, policies, and decisions. The relationship between public relations and the dominant coalition holds significant importance due to various factors. For instance, public relations practitioners closely collaborate with the dominant coalition to ensure that communication strategies of the organization align harmoniously 14 with its overarching goals and objectives (Wu, 2023), such that, this coalition’s input becomes pivotal in shaping messaging and communication approaches to mirror the organization’s mission, values, and strategic priorities. In terms of decision-making, public relations practitioners offer insights and suggestions to the dominant coalition regarding the potential perceptions of various stakeholders toward specific decisions and actions (Thurlow et al., 2018). As a result of this input from practitioners, the coalition can make well-informed decisions that consider possible reputational consequences. Wherein the dominant coalition assumes a central role in the management of the organization’s reputation (Ilán Bizberg, 2019), working in tandem with public relations practitioners, enable the decision-makers to actively oversee the organization’s public image and effectively address any challenges that might arise, including crises or bad publicity (Alaby, 2018). Public relations efforts often revolve around nurturing positive relationships with stakeholders (Fithri & Drajat, 2020). Here, the dominant coalition’s grasp of stakeholder concerns and priorities serves as the foundation for public relations strategies designed to genuinely engage and communicate with these diverse groups (Tregidga & Milne, 2020). Finally, effective internal communication is a critical aspect that cannot be undermined, and public relation practitioners play a role in helping the dominant coalition communicate their directives, vision, and strategic plans to employees (Tao et al., 2022; Carter et al., 2019). Altogether, the relationship between public relations and the dominant coalition is multi-faceted, such that working synergistically to shape perceptions and make informed decisions help to manage the organization’s overall standing efficiently in the eyes of stakeholders and the public. 1.7.2 Factors that Impact Public Relations Influence within the C-Suite In today’s business environment, effective communication and reputation management are pivotal for an organization’s success (Erlangga et al., 2020). Public Relations practitioners play a crucial 15 role in maintaining positive stakeholder relationships, bolstering brand image, and managing potential crises. While CEOs and C-level executives might not always realize it, public relation’s significance extends to them (Posey, 2023), emphasizing the need for a comprehensive understanding of their contributions. Yet, various challenges hinder public relations practitioners’ progress in this globalized era. Technological deficiencies, particularly in communication infrastructure in places like Ghana, impede the efforts of practitioners (Anani-Bossman & Bruce, 2022). Amid these complexities, several factors emerge as determinants of public relation’s influence within the C-Suite as follows: Organizational Culture and Structure: The cultural and structural fabric of an organization significantly impacts the weight of public relation’s influence. Studies underline that workplaces valuing openness, transparency, and collaboration tend to prioritize public relation’s strategic counsel (Lee & Queenie Li, 2020). Organizational culture intertwines with communication initiatives, affecting how public relations strategies are executed (Sebastião et al., 2017). This imply that public relations practitioners must align with the organizational culture to effectively contribute at the C-Suite level. Skills and Competencies: The skill set and competencies of public relations practitioners directly shape their influence. Proficiency in strategic communication aligns communication goals with the organization’s larger objectives (Argenti, 2017). Argenti (2017) indicate that expertise in reputation management, skill in media relations, effective stakeholder engagement, business acumen, and data analysis capabilities further enhance public relation’s value within the organization. Building Relationships and Trust: The ability of public relations practitioners to cultivate strong relationships and engender trust with C-Suite executives is crucial (Meng & Berger, 2019). Thus 16 by demonstrating credibility through expertise, offering strategic guidance, and providing prompt and reliable advice can establish influence in high-level decision-making (Tam et al., 2020). Demonstrating Value and ROI: To elevate their influence within the C-Suite, PR practitioners must substantiate their value. This involves presenting measurable outcomes such as ROI, brand equity, and reputation metrics (Bechan, 2022). Aligning PR efforts with business objectives and showcasing tangible results contribute to building credibility and influence with senior management (Almansa-Martínez & Fernández-Souto, 2020; Anani-Bossman, 2021a; Koch et al., 2017). 1.7.3 Public Relations Integration into Decision-Making Processes The integration of public relations into decision-making processes is emphasized as a crucial strategy for organizations to align choices with their communication objectives, manage reputation, and cultivate positive stakeholder relationships (Theaker, 2020). In this regard, early involvement of practitioners is highlighted as beneficial, as their comprehensive understanding of an organization’s goals and stakeholders allows them to provide valuable insights that align with communication strategies (Marsen, 2019). Pidgeon (2020) concurs with the importance of integrating public relations into decision-making, underscoring its role in effective reputation management, stakeholder communication, and the alignment of decisions with an organization’s core values and objectives, and other key aspects. Thus, successful integration of public relations into the C-Suite enables practitioners to assess the impact of decisions on reputation, conduct stakeholder analysis, develop communication plans, and ensure readiness for potential crises (Marsen, 2019). It is imperative to note that public relations practitioners play a multifaceted role, which encompass evaluating potential decisions’ consequences on an organization’s reputation, conducting risk 17 assessments, and advising on strategies to mitigate negative outcomes (Marsen, 2019). Furthermore, practitioners’ expertise in ethical practices ensures that decision-making adheres to industry standards, promoting trust and credibility (Marsen, 2019). In crisis situations as well, practitioners contribute by assessing potential risks and creating contingency plans, enabling organizations to make decisions that are resilient in the face of challenges (Marsen, 2019). In addition, evaluating outcomes and establishing key performance indicators (KPIs) assists organizations in assessing decision-making effectiveness and making necessary adjustments (Marsen, 2019). 1.8 The Excellence Theory and The Role Theory Excellence Theory is a vital concept in the realm of organizational and strategic management studies (Hung-Baesecke et al., 2021). Excellence Theory, propounded by James E. Grunig, posits that organizational success is reliant upon achieving a high level of symmetrical communication – where communication practices align with organizational goals and stakeholder expectations (Grunig, 2022). In the context of the C-suite, the excellence theory suggests that public relations practitioners, as communication experts, play a crucial role in facilitating effective communication between the organization and its key stakeholders, thereby influencing decision-making processes (McCollough, 2019). Complementing Excellence Theory is Role Theory, a sociological concept that probes into the intricacies of how individuals function within social systems or organizations (Apriyanto & Yuliana, 2019). The theory provides a framework for analysing how individuals in different positions within an organization enact their roles and contribute to the overall functioning of the institution. In the context of public relations practitioners within the C-suite, Role Theory helps 18 elucidate the expectations placed on these individuals and how they navigate their roles to influence organizational outcomes, and enables a deeper exploration of the specific functions, responsibilities, and power dynamics associated with public relations role within the executive leadership team (Anglin et al., 2022). Transposing Role Theory into an organizational context, allows for an in-depth examination of how public relations practitioners enact their roles to contribute to the overall success of the organization (Şeşen, 2015). It enables an exploration of the specific responsibilities, functions, and expectations associated with public relations role within the executive leadership team, with a focus on how these activities align with the pursuit of organizational excellence (Meng, 2014). The above approach considers the dynamic interplay between the roles of public relations practitioners and the broader organizational context. 1.9 Research Methodology and Design Research methodology and design encompass the overall strategy for conducting a research study, including methods, data collection, analysis approaches, and the structure of the study (Ganesha & Aithal, 2022). A well-planned design ensures reliability, validity, and a systematic approach to research inquiry (Leavy, 2017). The choice of methodology depends on research questions, objectives, and available resources (Sileyew, 2019). In lieu of that, this study will adopt the qualitative research approach to conduct this inquiry which according to Dzogovic and Bajrami (2023), is an approach used to seek, gather and analyse non-numerical data to gain in-depth understanding of a research phenomenon. Key components of the above as posited by the scholars include: 19 Methods: This study will utilize in-depth interviews to explore subjective experiences and social contexts (Hoover, 2021). Structured and semi-structured open-ended conversations will be employed to gather rich data, and will help to explore nuances about the phenomenon (Hemphill et al., n.d.-b). Sampling Design and Technique: Cash et al. (2022), define sampling design as the overall plan or strategy that researchers use to select a subset of individuals or elements from a larger population for inclusion in a study. They added, that sampling design involves making decisions about the target population, the sample size, and the method of sampling. This thus imply, that sampling design guides in the selection process. Sampling technique on the other hand as purported by McCombes (2019), refers to the specific method or procedure used to select individuals or elements from the population to form the sample, which involves the practical implementation of the sampling design. Sampling technique can be categorized into two; (a) probability sampling – involves random selection of participants, allowing them an equal chance of being selected, and (b) non-probability sampling – involves selection of the study participants based on convenience, availability, and specific characteristics that will fit the criterion of the study (McCombes, 2019). Thus, in qualitative research, experts submit, that the focus is on exploration and understanding of real experiences, meanings, and perspectives of a social contexts of participants rather than generalizing findings to a larger group. Hence, an appropriate technique to utilize for qualitative study according to Omona (2013), is non-probability sampling. Out of the many sampling techniques such as snowball sampling, purposive sampling, convenience sampling, theoretical sampling, among many others used by explorative researchers, this study will employ purposive and expert sampling technique. This is because, purposive sampling involves selecting participants who possess a particular knowledge and experiences relevant to the phenomenon under study 20 (Stratton, 2023), and allows for individual who can provide in-depth insights and diverse range of perspectives, to be targeted for the study. Following the context of this study, the purposive sampling design will be adopted due to its ability to focus and target C-level executives or decision- makers and public relations experts, specifically the heads of the public relations units in both state and private sector organizations,. It is believed these individual experts will possess specialized knowledge and expertise in the field of public relations, making them valuable sources of in-depth information for this study. Study Participants: The study aims to actively involve approximately fifteen (15) heads of the public relations departments in ten (10) private sector organizations, five (5) from state organizations, and five (5) decision makers or C-level executives from both sectors. Thus, total number of the study’s participants are twenty (20). Study Area: The Greater Accra region is selected as the study area due to its accessibility, prominence, and concentration of relevant organizations, which directly influence the research phenomenon 1.10 Data Collection Method and Technique Data collection is the systematic gathering of relevant and reliable information from various sources including participants, to address research objectives and questions, using specific methods and instruments (Taherdoost, 2021). Thus, to enhance validity and reliability, scholars recommend using multiple methods based on research goals, context, and resources available. In line with the inquiry’s paradigm which is interpretivist, qualitative data collection techniques will be employed. These methods aim to gather insights into individuals’ lived experiences, 21 opinions, and perspectives within a social context, yielding a nuanced understanding of phenomena (Tomaszewski et al., 2020). Among the available techniques, this study will opt for interviews to obtain in-depth information from individuals with in-depth knowledge. Interviews are chosen based on Alamri’s (2019) assertion that they facilitate direct and detailed conversations. Thus, for this study, a semi-structured approach will be employed, combining aspects of structured and unstructured interviews. This approach to interviews utilize planned open-ended questions to guide conversations, allowing flexibility for follow-up queries and participant insights (Eppich et al., 2019). 1.11 Data Analysis Techniques Data analysis, as articulated by Creswell and Creswell (2018), represents the crucial process of extracting meaningful insights, drawing conclusions, and addressing research questions or hypotheses from collected data. This entails organizing, refining, transforming, and summarizing raw data into discernible patterns, trends, and relationships to yield valuable information aligned with research objectives. Moreover, Newman and Gough (2019) underline the necessity for adapting data analysis methods to suit the nature of the data (i.e. quantitative or qualitative), research design, and questions at hand. Considering the phenomenological nature of this study, a qualitative data analysis approach will be aptly employed to meticulously examine and elucidate the primary data collected. This chosen methodology resonates with Lester et al.’s (2020) assertion that qualitative data analysis involves methodical scrutiny and interpretation of qualitative data to unveil patterns, themes, and insights that illuminate underlying meanings, contributing to a broader comprehension of the research subject. Thus, from the array of techniques available to qualitative researchers for data analysis, 22 this study will leverage thematic analysis and Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to dissect and interpret primary data. In agreement with Morgan and Nica (2020), thematic analysis empowers researchers to discern, analyse, and construe patterns or themes inherent in the collected data. Furthermore, the capacity to holistically probe data for fresh insights, adeptly coding recurring concepts and ideas into categorical themes will be highlighted (Peel, 2020). Complementing the IPA, stems from the fact that it emerges as a participant-centred technique that strives to unveil a profound and nuanced comprehension of participants’ viewpoints and anchored in grasping their lived experiences, enabling them to articulate their encounters accurately and free from distortion or judgment (Alase, 2017). 1.12 Ethical Consideration The ethical considerations that underpin research encompass a set of principles and guidelines aimed at safeguarding the rights, well-being, and dignity of participants throughout the research process (Graham et al., 2014; Maldonado-Castellanos & Barrios, 2023). This facet of research holds significant importance in upholding the integrity and validity of the research endeavour, acting as a safeguard against potential harm to individuals and communities involved (Petrova et al., 2014). The cautious adherence to these ethical guidelines is imperative and non-negotiable within the framework of this study. Numerous scholars have underscored the pivotal elements of ethical considerations in research. The concept of Informed Consent, as advocated by Eaton (2020), demands that researchers obtain explicit permission from participants prior to their engagement in the study. This involves transparently conveying the purpose of the research, the procedures involved, potential risks and benefits, participants’ voluntary participation, withdrawal rights, and the freedom to seek clarifications. This fundamental principle will be stringently 23 followed in the study. Furthermore, participants’ esteem for confidentiality as a means of controlling personal information is highly recommended (Jamal et al., 2014, p. 964). Thus, this study will ensure to accurately uphold confidentiality and privacy, protecting the identities of participants by assigning anonymous codes and ensuring that access to data about public relations practitioners is restricted to the study’s supervisors. Moreover, Pietilä et al. (2019) assert that participants must be assured that the information they provide will solely be employed for academic purposes. In light of that, this study is committed to honouring this aspect of confidentiality, where every effort will be exerted to divulge the necessary details for obtaining participants’ consent while eliminating potential conflicts of interest that could jeopardize the study’s impartiality, outcomes, or the well-being of the participants. Similarly, Lincoln and Guba’s “Naturalistic Inquiry” (1985) offers comprehensive guidance on ethical considerations in qualitative research. This study will focus on the key aspects of trustworthiness. Therefore the study will focus on transferability by offering adequate details for readers to apply findings in similar situations, and enhance credibility through thorough data collection, triangulation, member checking, peer debriefing, detailed documentation, and reflexivity. The study will also prioritize dependability by maintaining stability, consistency, reliability, and transparency throughout data collection and analysis and also ensure the study’s confirmability by establishing objectivity and neutrality, which will be free from biases. Lastly, the study will emphasize authenticity by truthfully representing the lived experiences of participants, perspectives, and voices. 24 1.13 Chapter Summary Public relations holds a vital role in fostering relationships between organizations and their audiences. It influences audience behaviour and branding, contributing significantly to achieving organizational goals. Strategic decisions led by the C-suite are essential for public relations success, as highlighted by researchers. However, recent studies indicate that public relations practitioners often lack power and influence during strategic decision-making processes. This issue is observed globally, including in Africa, like Ghana. Despite the growth of public relations, it is not often practiced at the strategic level in Ghana. This study aims to investigate strategic public relations implementation in Ghana using Role theory and Dominant Coalition theory. It seeks to understand power dynamics, effectiveness of practitioners’ influence, and their capacity to affect decision-making. By exploring these factors, the study aims to grasp a comprehensive understanding of power dynamics in organizations. The study will outline specific goals and intentions, guide research questions, emphasize significance, and shed light on the role of public relations practitioners in decision-making. Employing an interpretivist paradigm, it will use qualitative research methods like in-depth interviews, observations, and document analysis. Sampling techniques will be purposive and expert, targeting C-level or decision makers and public relations unit heads in private and public sector organizations in the Greater Accra region. The study aims to contribute to recognizing public relations’ role, improving its strategic implementation, and enhancing the understanding of its practitioners. 25 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction Power and influence are pivotal elements in the field of public relations, as they play a significant role in shaping public perception, building relationships, and achieving organizational goals. This literature review aims to thoroughly explore the multifaceted relationship between power, influence, and public relations, while also delving into the inhibitors and challenges that public relations practitioners encounter in wielding influence. Additionally, the study will examine how public relations practitioners enact power and influence, and their connection with the C-Suite, the top executive level within an organization. Consequently, the interplay between public relations and the boardroom has become a subject of growing significance, particularly in understanding the dynamics of power and influence within organizations. Thus, this literature draws insights from the Excellence theory and Role theory to understand and thoroughly assess the situation described above. Neill (2015) highlights that when corporate communications executives are involved in strategic issues beyond the C-Suite, they often compete with marketing for influence. Meanwhile, the structural integration in the C-Suite has positive benefits for firm reputation and profitability, particularly in service-oriented firms (Ibrahim et al., 2021). Smith (2013) examines perceptions of public relations practitioners in an integrated communication structure and suggests that public relations may gain influence through social media acumen and the interconnected structure of communications can influence public relations. By synthesizing theoretical foundations, empirical research, and real-world illustrations, this review aims to provide an insightful exploration of public relations role in shaping corporate decision-making and strategic governance. 26 2.1 Theoretical Framework A theoretical framework is a conceptual structure that provides a foundation for understanding and analysing a particular phenomenon, problem, or subject of study, and consists of a set of interrelated concepts, theories, and models that help to organize the research and guide with analysis (Nhan, 2020). Following the phenomenological nature of this study, the Excellence Theory and the Role Theory are deemed the appropriate theories to help figure out the power dynamics within the C-Suite and how public relations practitioners can enact influence in the boardroom. 2.1.1 Excellence Theory In 1984, the “Excellence Team” responded to the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) call for a research project to investigate how communication can impact organizational goals (Grunig & Grunig, 2000). In 1985, a comprehensive study spanning literature review, surveys, and qualitative analyses was conducted with inquiries entailing how public relations contributes to an organizations success and what characteristics define an effective public relations function (Grunig & Grunig, 2000). 327 organizations were surveyed and 25 qualitative studies were conducted across the US, Canada, and the UK. Findings of the study highlighted public relations role in integrating stakeholders’ goals with an organizations and emphasized the value of public relations in nurturing quality relationships with key groups. The findings led to the development of ten principles, shaping global public relations theory, which emphasized strategic management involvement, integrated communication practices, managerial leadership, symmetrical communication, and diversity as key elements for excellent public relations practice (Hung-Baesecke et al., 2021). 27 The ten key principles of the theory is a comprehensive framework that outlines how public relations can contribute to organizational effectiveness: 1. Public relations is involved in an organizations strategic management which involves setting specific organizational goals, objectives and tasks to achieve such goals 2. Public relations is empowered by the dominant coalition or by a direct reporting relationship to senior management 3. The public relations function is an integrated one that combines all the communication- related practices into one major umbrella function 4. Public relations is a management function separate from other functions 5. The public relations unit is headed by a manager rather than a technician 6. The two-way symmetrical model of public relations is used 7. A symmetrical system of internal communication is used 8. Knowledge potential for managerial role and symmetrical public relations 9. Diversity is embodied in all roles 10. An organizational context exists for excellence (Hung-Baesecke et al., 2021). Arguably from the principles above, the excellence theory thus is a vital concept in the realm of organizational and strategic management studies (Hung-Baesecke et al., 2021). The theory posits that organizational success is reliant upon achieving a high level of symmetrical communication – where communication practices align with organizational goals and stakeholder expectations (Grunig, 2022), and focuses on achieving organizational excellence through effective communication and relationship management (Razak et al., 2019). Which in turn suggests that, organizations can enhance their performance, reputation, and success by adopting and implementing strategic communication practices that prioritize transparency, honesty, and stakeholder engagement (Malyadri et al., 2021). The excellence theory underscores the idea that public relations and communication are not just tools for persuasion but serve as vehicles for 28 building and sustaining positive relationships that contribute to organizational excellence (Ofori, 2019). The theory also presents a comprehensive perspective on the value of communication, which can be assessed across four distinct levels: (a) Successful organizations must elevate public relations to a pivotal management function - Programme Level, (b) while seamlessly integrating it as a distinct communication function - Functional Level, separate from areas like marketing. (c) Organizations should underpin both internal and external communication with a two-way symmetrical model - Organizational Level, and (d) embrace social responsibility, acknowledging their broader societal impact - Societal Level (Waddington, 2012). In the context of the C-suite, the excellence theory suggests that public relations practitioners, as communication experts, play a crucial role in facilitating effective communication between the organization and its key stakeholders, thereby influencing decision-making processes (McCollough, 2019). Thus, the essence of public relations is rooted in its ability to foster relationships between an organization and its key publics (Tam et al., 2022). By cultivating these relationships, an organization can align its goals with those of its stakeholders, mitigate the impact of negative publicity, and enhance revenue generation through the provision of stakeholder- needed products and services (Grunig & Grunig, 2008). Therefore, maximizing the value of public relations hinges on pinpointing strategic publics and fostering enduring relationships via symmetrical communication initiatives (Grunig, 2022). Stemming from the above, the theory emphasizes the empowerment of public relations practitioners as a critical aspect of effective public relations (Grunig et al., 2006). It posits that for an organization to be effective, it must grant public relations the power to act as a crucial management function (Tam et al., 2022). This implies that public relations practitioners should possess the authority to make pivotal decisions and contribute to the strategic direction of the 29 organization (Grunig, 1992). In addition, the theory emphasizes that public relations executives should play both managerial and administrative roles by being involved in the planning and decision-making processes (Grunig et al., 2006). Concretely, the theory also advocates for the organization of the communication function in a way “that public relations is an integrated communication function, separate from marketing or other management functions”, as this ensures that public relations has its own distinct role and is not overshadowed by other functions (Grunig, 1992). From the above, empowering public relations with autonomy that essentially drives public relations value is premised on valuable insights into the structure of strategic management (Tam et al., 2022) in organizations from four key approaches: goal attainment, systems, strategic constituencies, and competing values. Among these, the competing values approach serves as a bridge between an organizations goals and the values of its strategic constituencies (Kim et al., 2013). It asserts that for an organization to succeed, it must harmonize the values of these constituencies with its own objectives, ensuring alignment between what matters most to these groups and the organizations pursuits (Grunig et al., 2006). A core element within the excellence theory revolves around the role of public relations in strategic management (Tam et al., 2022). This pivotal component underscores the significance of behavioural and strategic management approaches adopted by public relations, emphasizing their substantial contribution to organizational strategies, and defining effective public relations across four primary categories: empowerment of the public relations function, communicator roles, organization of the communication function, and public relations models (Grunig et al., 2006). These characteristics serve as a structured framework guiding strategic management within organizations (Grunig & Grunig, 2008). 30 The Excellence theory is essential for this study because it highlights the significance of symmetrical communication, which enhances mutual understanding and cooperation between corporate executives and stakeholders. This framework promotes both proactive and reactive public relations strategies that align with an organization’s long-term goals and ethical standards. Moreover, the theory positions public relations as a key player in decision-making processes, vital for analysing influence within the C-suite. By utilizing the theory, the study aims to delve into how public relations practices shape organizational outcomes and leadership behaviours, providing a thorough understanding of public relation’s impact on corporate governance and strategic success. This method not only deepens the analytical aspects of the research but also meets the contemporary demands for accountability and strategic integration in organizational communication. Ultimately, the Excellence theory serves as a guide for organizations to enhance their communication practices, focusing on transparency, honesty, and stakeholder engagement. Adopting these principles can boost performance, reputation, and success, achieving excellence in the dynamic field of public relations and communication. The theory is suitable as it offers a comprehensive view of public relation’s role in shaping decision-making and power dynamics. By adhering to its principles like two-way communication, ethical practices, and long-term relationship building, organizations can better understand public relation’s influence in the C- suite. This approach provides a solid framework for exploring the dynamics of public relations within organizations. 2.1.1 Role Theory Role theory in public relations offers a framework for understanding how public relations practitioners assume various roles within organizations and their influence on media and public perceptions (Anglin et al., 2022). This theory helps decode the complex behaviour and 31 expectations placed on these practitioners in their day-to-day operations. Initially developed in the mid-20th century, role theory has roots in sociology and organizational psychology. It examines the functions individuals perform within group dynamics. Anglin et al. (2022) opines that the adaptation to public relations occurred as scholars observed distinct patterns in the activities of public relations practitioners, which align with broader social roles. Central to role theory are key principles. First, roles are seen as scripted parts individuals play in the organizational setting. Each role comes with specific responsibilities and expectations that guide behaviour and decision-making (Sriramesh & Verčič, 2019). Second, these roles are fluid and can evolve based on situational demands and organizational changes. Third, the interaction between different roles within a company can lead to role conflict or role enhancement, affecting overall communication effectiveness. Public relations practitioners often juggle multiple roles. These include the technician, who executes communication strategies, and the manager, who strategizes and oversees public relations programs. Each role demands distinct skills and contributes differently to the organization’s objectives and public image (Ngondo & Klyueva, 2020). Understanding these roles aids in the strategic training and deployment of public relations personnel, ensuring that each member’s strengths are best utilized to meet organizational goals. Moreover, by analysing role performance, organizations can refine their communication strategies to better align with their mission and the expectations of their stakeholders. Applying Role Theory to public relations in the C-suite highlights the strategic roles public relations practitioners play in guiding corporate decisions. This approach illuminates the impact of public relations skills on boardroom dynamics, enriching our understanding of their role in enhancing stakeholder relations and shaping governance strategies. The Role theory is particularly relevant for this study. It delineates the various functions, expectations, and potential conflicts 32 faced by public relations practitioners at the executive level. The theory also offers significant insight into examining how these roles are perceived within the corporate hierarchy. It provides insights into role ambiguities and how these roles may shift in response to evolving corporate landscapes. By analysing the distinct roles public relations practitioners assume, the study aims to uncover the extent of their influence in the C-suite. It explores how these practitioners navigate their responsibilities to influence policy and strategic decisions. Additionally, the study will assess how effectively public relations roles are integrated into the overall corporate strategy. The application of role theory in this context promises to reveal significant aspects of corporate communication and decision-making processes. It sheds light on the mechanisms through which public relations practitioners contribute to a company’s strategic direction and resilience. This is crucial for understanding how public relations can extend beyond traditional boundaries to shape high-level corporate strategies and outcomes. 2.1.2 How the Excellence Theory and Role Theory Complement Each Other The Excellence Theory and Role Theory complement each other effectively in studying public relations within the C-suite. While the Excellence theory focuses on principles and models that exemplify effective public relations practice, emphasizing strategic management roles and symmetric communication for organizational effectiveness, the Role theory, on the other hand, clarifies the specific roles and behavioural expectations of public relations practitioners within these frameworks. Together, these theories provide a comprehensive view. Excellence theory outlines what optimal public relations functions should look like, advocating for public relations roles that contribute to strategic decision-making and foster mutually beneficial stakeholder relationships. Role Theory then identifies how these ideal roles are enacted in practice, detailing the specific responsibilities and potential role conflicts experienced by public relations 33 practitioners. By integrating both theories, the study can evaluate not only the ideal state of public relations practices as prescribed by the Excellence Theory but also the actual roles inhabited by public relations practitioners as described by Role theory. This dual perspective allows for a deeper analysis of how closely current practices align with ideal models and what factors influence this alignment. This synergy enhances the understanding of public relation’s impact on organizational success and governance, providing a richer, more detailed exploration of the dynamics at play within the highest levels of corporate management. 2.2 Conceptualizing Public Relations Public relations is a strategic communication and management discipline that focuses on building and maintaining positive relationships between organizations, individuals, or entities and their various stakeholders, including the public, media, customers, employees, investors, and government bodies (Frandsen, 2019). In other words, public relations is a management function that aims to earn public understanding and acceptance through two-way communication and foster mutually beneficial relationships (Rizzo, 2018). Ahafonova (2018) defines public relations from another perspective as a management discipline that focuses on strategic and sustained engagement to drive behavioural change while building mutual understanding and trust. Therefore, the primary goal of public relations is to shape and manage perceptions, reputation, and the overall image of an entity in order to achieve specific objectives and foster goodwill (Tam et al., 2020). From the above definitions, key concepts of public relations that can be deduced include: (a) Relationship Building: This means public relations practitioners strive to establish and maintain relationships with various stakeholders, and essentially build strong relationships because that forms the foundation for trust and cooperation (Labarca & Mujica, 2022; Okereke, 2020). (b) 34 Communication: Effective communication, unequivocally is at the heart of public relations (Ratna, 2019), and encompasses both internal and external communication. Internally and externally, public relations ensures that employees understand and align with the organizations mission and values (Leijerholt, 2021), and craft messages to reach specific target audiences, adapting content and tone as needed for each group of publics (Singh, 2018). (c) Reputation Management: Reputation is a valuable, yet intangible asset for any entity (Bechan, 2022), and public relations is tasked to monitor and manage an organizations reputation by assessing public opinion, conducting surveys, and analysing media coverage (Okereke, 2020). Thus, when negative events occur, public relations develop strategies to minimize harm and rebuild trust (Kaleel, 2020). (d) Two-Way Communication: Public relations is not just about broadcasting messages (Tandoh, 2020); the profession involves active listening and engagement that organizations can leverage to gather feedback from stakeholders and use it to improve products, services, and communication strategies (Macnamara, 2016). Hence, fostering two-way communication – a sense of inclusion and responsiveness. (e) Media Relations: Public relations practitioners endeavour to maintain relationships with journalists and media outlets, by pitching story ideas, providing press releases, arranging interviews, and responding to media inquiries (Iturregui-Mardaras et al., 2020). Zhang et al. (2019) concur that these positive media coverages can enhance an organizations credibility and reach a broader audience. (f) Crisis Management: In the event of a crisis, such as a product recall, data breach, or scandal, public relations practitioners are expected to react swiftly and effectively (Jong, 2020), by developing crisis communication plans, address the issue transparently, and work to rebuild public’s trust and confidence (Kaleel, 2020). Done timely with appropriate responses, crisis damages are minimized effectively (Eldridge et al., 2020). (g) Public Engagement: Public relations extends beyond traditional media 35 to encompass digital platforms and social media (Casero-Ripollés, 2020). When organizations engage with their publics through social media channels, blogs, podcasts, and online forums, it fosters a sense of community and allows for real-time interaction with stakeholders (Ihm, 2019). Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Many organizations use CSR initiatives, such as sustainability efforts, charitable donations, and community involvement to demonstrate a sense of purpose and values beyond profit through public relations to highlight their commitment to social and environmental causes (Abubakar et al., 2022). (h) Strategic Planning: Public relations practitioners engage in strategic planning to ensure that their efforts align with the organizations overall goals by setting measurable objectives, develop communication plans, allocate resources, and continuously evaluate the effectiveness of their strategies (Bryson, 2021), and (i) Legal and Ethical Considerations: Adherence to ethical standards and legal regulations including transparency, honesty, and respecting the privacy and rights of individuals and organizations, are crucial in the practice of public relations (Jakopović, 2020; White & Boatwright, 2020). In lieu of that, Whitaker (2020) opine that violations of trust or ethical lapses can result in reputational damage. 2.2 1 Public Relations and the Dominant Coalition The concept of the “dominant coalition” is often used in organizational and management theory and refers to the group of individuals within an organization who hold the most power, influence, and decision-making authority (Mithani & OBrien, 2020). This coalition typically includes top executives, key managers, and other influential figures who have a substantial impact on the organizations tactical direction, policies, and decisions. 36 The relationship between public relations and the dominant coalition holds significant importance due to various factors. For instance, public relations practitioners closely collaborate with the dominant coalition to ensure that communication strategies of the organization align harmoniously with its overarching goals and objectives (Wu, 2023), such that, this coalitions input becomes pivotal in shaping messaging and communication approaches to mirror the organizations mission, values, and strategic priorities. In terms of decision-making, public relations practitioners offer insights and suggestions to the dominant coalition regarding the potential perceptions of various stakeholders toward specific decisions and actions (Thurlow et al., 2018). As a result of this input from practitioners, the coalition can make well-informed decisions that consider possible reputational consequences. Wherein the dominant coalition assumes a central role in the management of the organizations reputation (Ilán Bizberg, 2019), working in tandem with public relations practitioners, enable the decision-makers to actively oversee the organizations public image and effectively address any challenges that might arise, including crises or bad publicity (Alaby, 2018). Public relations efforts often revolve around nurturing positive relationships with stakeholders (Fithri & Drajat, 2020). Here, the dominant coalition’s grasp of stakeholder concerns and priorities serves as the foundation for public relations strategies designed to genuinely engage and communicate with these diverse groups (Tregidga & Milne, 2020). Finally, effective internal communication is a critical aspect that cannot be undermined, and public relation practitioners play a role in helping the dominant coalition communicate their directives, vision, and strategic plans to employees (Tao et al., 2022; Carter et al., 2019). Altogether, the relationship between public relations and the dominant coalition is multi-faceted, 37 such that working synergistically to shape perceptions and make informed decisions help to manage the organizations overall standing efficiently in the eyes of stakeholders and the public. 2.2.2 Factors that Impact Public Relations Influence within the C-Suite In today’s business environment, effective communication and reputation management are pivotal for an organizations success (Erlangga et al., 2020). Public Relations practitioners play a crucial role in maintaining positive stakeholder relationships, bolstering brand image, and managing potential crises. While CEOs and C-level executives might not always realize it, public relations significance extends to them (Posey, 2023), emphasizing the need for a comprehensive understanding of their contributions. Yet, various challenges hinder public relations practitioners’ progress in this globalized era. Technological deficiencies, particularly in communication infrastructure in places like Ghana, impede the efforts of practitioners (Anani-Bossman & Bruce, 2022). Amid these complexities, several factors emerge as determinants of public relations influence within the C-Suite as follows: i. Organizational Culture and Structure: The cultural and structural fabric of an organization significantly impacts the weight of public relations influence. Studies underline that workplaces valuing openness, transparency, and collaboration tend to prioritize public relations strategic counsel (Lee & Queenie Li, 2020). Organizational culture intertwines with communication initiatives, affecting how public relations strategies are executed (Sebastião et al., 2017). This imply that public relations practitioners must align with the organizational culture to effectively contribute at the C-Suite level. ii. Skills and Competencies: The skill set and competencies of public relations practitioners directly shape their influence. Proficiency in strategic communication aligns communication 38 goals with the organizations larger objectives (Argenti, 2017). Argenti (2017) indicate that expertise in reputation management, skill in media relations, effective stakeholder engagement, business acumen, and data analysis capabilities further enhance public relations value within the organization. iii. Building Relationships and Trust: The ability of public relations practitioners to cultivate strong relationships and engender trust with C-Suite executives is crucial (Meng & Berger, 2019). Thus by demonstrating credibility through expertise, offering strategic guidance, and providing prompt and reliable advice can establish influence in high-level decision-making (Tam et al., 2020). iv. Demonstrating Value and ROI: To elevate their influence within the C-Suite, public relations practitioners must substantiate their value. This involves presenting measurable outcomes such as ROI, brand equity, and reputation metrics (Bechan, 2022). Aligning public relations efforts with business objectives and showcasing tangible results contribute to building credibility and influence with senior management (Almansa-Martínez & Fernández-Souto, 2020; Anani- Bossman, 2021a; Koch et al., 2017). 2.2.3 Public Relations Integration into Decision-Making Processes The integration of public relations into decision-making processes is emphasized as a crucial strategy for organizations to align choices with their communication objectives, manage reputation, and cultivate positive stakeholder relationships (Theaker, 2020). In this regard, early involvement of practitioners is highlighted as beneficial, as their comprehensive understanding of an organizations goals and stakeholders allows them to provide valuable insights that align with communication strategies (Marsen, 2019). Pidgeon (2020) concurs with the importance of 39 integrating public relations into decision-making, underscoring its role in effective reputation management, stakeholder communication, and the alignment of decisions with an organizations core values and objectives, and other key aspects. Thus, successful integration of public relations into the C-Suite enables practitioners to assess the impact of decisions on reputation, conduct stakeholder analysis, develop communication plans, and ensure readiness for potential crises (Marsen, 2019). It is imperative to note that public relations practitioners play a multifaceted role, which encompass evaluating potential decisions consequences on an organizations reputation, conducting risk assessments, and advising on strategies to mitigate negative outcomes (Marsen, 2019). Furthermore, practitioners’ expertise in ethical practices ensures that decision-making adheres to industry standards, promoting trust and credibility (Marsen, 2019). In crisis situations as well, practitioners contribute by assessing potential risks and creating contingency plans, enabling organizations to make decisions that are resilient in the face of challenges (Marsen, 2019). In addition, evaluating outcomes and establishing key performance indicators (KPIs) assists organizations in assessing decision-making effectiveness and making necessary adjustments (Marsen, 2019). 2.3 Power and Influence Power and influence are closely intertwined concepts in the context of public relations, and both play crucial roles in interpersonal relationships, leadership dynamics, and social structures by shaping how decisions are made and how people interact within organizations and society as a whole (Simpson et al., 2019). 40 2.3.1 Power Power is a complex and multifaceted concept and can be interpreted in various ways depending on the context in which it is used. Generally, power refers to the ability or capacity of an individual, group, organization, or entity to influence, control, or affect the behaviour, decisions, or actions of others (Nanda, 2022). Nye (2021) submits that power represents the capability to bring about change or achieve desired outcomes, often by compelling or persuading others to comply with ones wishes or objectives. Key characteristics and aspects of power include: (a) Authority: Power is often associated with authority and can be formal or informal (Simeonova et al., 2022), where formal authority is granted by an official position or hierarchy within an organization or society, such as a government official or a company CEO (Bourgoin et al., 2020) and informal authority arises from personal charisma, expertise, or social influence (Hohmann et al., 2018). (b) Control: Power often entails the capacity to control financial resources, assets, or information that others value (Prinz & Rossi, 2022). (c) Context Dependency: This imply that power may vary depending on the situation, environment, or specific domain, and what constitutes power in one context may not necessarily be the same in another (Simeonova et al., 2022; Avelino, 2021), and (d) Influence: Zaaiman (2020) asserts that power frequently involves the ability to influence peoples thoughts, attitudes, behaviours, or decisions, and it can be exerted through various means, such as persuasion, coercion, leadership, or the control of resources (van Baarle et al., 2022). 2.3.2 Types of Power Power primarily is derived from one’s position or authority, and it has the potential to impact people in both constructive and detrimental ways (Hasty & Maner, 2020). Eatough (2022) outlined several forms of power essential for understanding organizational dynamics. Coercive power involves enforcing compliance through threats or sanctions. Conversely, reward power 41 relies on the provision of incentives to shape behaviour. Expert power emerges from possessing specialized skills or knowledge. Referent power, on the other hand, is associated with an individual’s charisma or popularity, often seen with celebrities. Finally, legitimate power arises from ones formal position within an institution, typically transient as noted by Juneja (2015). This classification aids in dissecting the mechanisms through which influence is exerted in corporate settings. From the above, it is evident that power can be defined in various ways, but what truly matters is how individuals who hold it, use it (Juneja, 2015). Within an organizational context, it is crucial to effectively manage power dynamics and relationships because they profoundly influence employee motivation and engagement (Kovach, 2020). Moreover, these dynamics can impact decision-making, resource allocation, and social structures (Simeonova et al., 2022) and equally play an important role in modelling an organizations overall culture and the interactions among its members (Dolgaya et al., 2020; Ramos et al., 2019). Power dynamics can be hierarchical or relational and are frequently at play in interpersonal relationships, organizations, and societies (Simeonova et al., 2022). It is imperative to note that power can be used for both positive and negative purposes (van Baarle et al., 2022), and its ethical use involves responsible and fair decision-making, transparency, and consideration of the interests and well-being of others (Grant, 2022). Conversely, the misuse or abuse of power can lead to oppression, inequality, and harm to individuals or groups (Drydyk, 2021). In essence, effective use of power in public relations hinges on strategic participation in decision- making and is often contingent on the value management places on public relations functions (Berger, 2013). Accessibility to the dominant coalition amplifies the influence of public relations practitioners, enabling them to demonstrate the functions value and contribute meaningfully to 42 strategic planning (Grunig, 2022). Mastery in boundary-spanning roles enhances this influence, mitigating the restri