BENCHMARKING PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTICE IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR 

AGAINST THE PRINCIPLES OF THE EXCELLENCE THEORY: A STUDY OF 

SELECTED GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS 

BY 

AMEDEGBE-DOE KINGSLEY 

MAPRM23032 

 

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF MEDIA, ARTS AND 

COMMUNICATION (UniMAC) – INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM IN PARTIAL 

FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF 

ARTS IN STRATEGIC PUBLIC RELATIONS MANAGEMENT 

 

 

JANUARY, 2025 

 

 



i 

 

DECLARATION 

I hereby declare that this research is a result of my own original study, and that no part of it has 

been presented for another degree in this university or any other higher education institute.  

I further declare that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and 

acknowledged by means of complete references. 

 

Amedegbe-Doe Kingsley 

MASPRM23032                                                                       January 14, 2025          

  

 

 

 



ii 

 

CERTIFICATION BY SUPERVISOR 

This dissertation has been prepared and presented under my supervision according to the 

guidelines for supervising and formatting dissertations as laid down by the University of Media, 

Art and Communication (UniMAC). 

Albert Anani-Bossman (PhD)                                                                       

(Supervisor)                                                                                                  January 15, 2024 

  



iii 

 

DEDICATION 

This dissertation is dedicated to all public relations practitioners and academics whose tireless 

efforts, groundbreaking research, and innovative practices have driven the evolution of public 

relations as a discipline and profession. Your contributions are a sturdy foundation on which public 

relations burgeon. 

May this work serve as a testament to your legacy and as a source of inspiration for future scholars 

and practitioners committed to excellence in public relations. 

  



iv 

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

I am profoundly grateful to God for His grace, guidance, and sustenance throughout this journey. 

His wisdom and strength have been my anchor, enabling me to persevere through the challenges 

of this research. 

My deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Dr. Albert Anani-Bossman, without whose guidance, 

and patience, this study would have contributed to statistics of what could have been. 

I am deeply thankful to the participants of this study, whose generosity by way of time, insights, 

and experiences made this study possible. I remain forever indebted. 

My gratitude to the scholars and researchers whose works formed the foundation of this study. I 

acknowledge this pivotal role in enriching my understanding of the subject. 

Finally, to everyone who contributed in one way or another to this endeavour, akpe na mi.



 

 

ABSTRACT 

Public relations in the government sector contributes significantly to maintaining transparency, 

trust, and accountability between governments and citizens. In Ghana, the effectiveness of public 

relations practice in public institutions has often raised brows of doubt. This study evaluates the 

effectiveness of PR praxis in Ghana’s public sector, employing Grunig and Hunt’s Excellence 

Theory as a benchmark. Using a qualitative approach, it draws insights from semi-structured 

interviews with 15 practitioners across various state institutions. Findings reveal a discrepancy 

between the strategic value of PR and its actual implementation within institutional frameworks. 

Practitioners are largely relegated to technical roles, with minimal involvement in policy 

formulation or organisational goal-setting. Consequently, they are rarely considered for a seat with 

the dominant coalition. The study also identifies a disparity between the theoretical knowledge of 

practitioners and their practical strategic management skills. Misconceptions about PR’s role 

further exacerbate this gap. Additionally, PR practice frequently defaults to one-way or two-way 

asymmetric communication, with limited application of two-way symmetrical models. The study 

concludes that achieving PR excellence requires addressing systemic challenges, including inter 

alia, institutional support for strategic public relations, adherence to two-way symmetrical 

communication and investment in research and development. 

 

KEYWORDS: Public Relations, Strategic Management, Public Sector Communication, 

Excellence Theory, Knowledge Potential, Two-Way Symmetrical Communication, Professional 

Development 

  



 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

DECLARATION........................................................................................................................ i 

CERTIFICATION BY SUPERVISOR .................................................................................. ii 

DEDICATION.......................................................................................................................... iii 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ......................................................................................................... iv 

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... 1 

INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................... 1 

1.0 Chapter Overview ........................................................................................................... 1 

1.1 Background of the study ................................................................................................. 1 

1.2 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................ 6 

1.3 Aim and objectives of the study...................................................................................... 7 

1.4 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 8 

1.5 Significance of the study ................................................................................................. 9 

1.6 Scope of the study ........................................................................................................... 9 

1.7 Organisation of the study ................................................................................................ 9 

1.8 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 10 

LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 11 

2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 11 

2.1 Theoretical Framework of the Study ............................................................................ 11 

2.1.1 Involvement of Public Relations in Strategic Management ..................................... 14 

2.1.2 Empowerment of public relations in the dominant coalition .................................... 14 

2.1.3 Knowledge potential for managerial role ................................................................. 15 

2.1.4 Two-way Symmetrical Model of Public Relations ................................................... 16 

2.2 Defining Public Relations ............................................................................................. 16 

2.2.1 Public Relations Practice in the Public Sector .......................................................... 17 

2.2.2 Public Relations in Ghana ......................................................................................... 19 

2.3 Empirical Review.......................................................................................................... 20 

2.4 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 21 

METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................. 22 

3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 22 

3.1 Research Approach ....................................................................................................... 22 

3.2 Research Design............................................................................................................ 23 



 

 

3.3 Research Paradigm........................................................................................................ 24 

3.4 Research Population, Sampling Technique, and Sample Size ...................................... 25 

3.5 Data Collection Method ................................................................................................ 27 

3.7 Data Collection Procedure ............................................................................................ 28 

3.8 Treatment, Presentation and Analysis of Data .............................................................. 29 

3.9 Ethical Considerations .................................................................................................. 29 

3.10 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 30 

DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ................ 31 

4.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 31 

4.1 Demographic Profile ..................................................................................................... 31 

4.2 Purpose of Public Relations .......................................................................................... 32 

4.3 RQ1 Involvement of Public Relations in Strategic Management ................................. 33 

4.3.1 Limited integration into strategic management ........................................................ 34 

4.3.2 Partial Participation into strategic management ....................................................... 35 

4.3.3 Underutilisation of Research..................................................................................... 37 

4.4 RQ2 Reporting Relationship in Ghana’s public sector and level of empowerment ..... 39 

4.4.1 Direct reporting relationships, yet marginal influence ............................................. 39 

4.4.2 Misconception about public relations ....................................................................... 41 

4.4.3 Support, without strategic involvement .................................................................... 42 

4.5 RQ3: Knowledge potential among practitioners in Ghana’s public sector institutions 44 

4.5.1 Greater technical proficiency than managerial expertise .......................................... 45 

4.5.2 Qualification as a necessity ....................................................................................... 46 

4.5.3 Gaps in training and professional development ........................................................ 47 

4.6 RQ4 Two-way symmetrical communication in Ghana’s public sector ........................ 48 

4.6.1 Context-driven practices ........................................................................................... 49 

4.6.2 Prevalence of one-way Communication ................................................................... 50 

4.7 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 53 

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................... 54 

5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 54 

5.1 Summary of Key Findings ............................................................................................ 54 

5.1.1 Purpose of Public Relations ...................................................................................... 54 

5.1.2 Involvement of public relations in strategic management ........................................ 55 



 

 

5.1.3 Empowerment of public relations and direct reporting relationship ........................ 55 

5.1.4 Knowledge potential for managerial role ................................................................. 56 

5.1.5 Two-way symmetrical communication..................................................................... 56 

5.2 Practical Recommendations of the Study ..................................................................... 57 

5.3 Recommendations for Future Research ........................................................................ 58 

5.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 59 

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 60 

APPENDIX .............................................................................................................................. 67 



1 

 

 

CHAPTER 1 

INTRODUCTION 

1.0 Chapter Overview 

This chapter discusses the background of the study, thereby providing a context, rationale, and 

direction for the entire investigation. The chapter then discusses the problem statement that puts 

the study in context to other studies within the literature to drum up the rationale for the study, 

while recognising the contributions made by other researchers within the area. The chapter 

articulates the research aims and narrows in on the research objectives that will undergird the study. 

Gleaning from the research objectives, the chapter also discusses the research questions that will 

be answered at the end of the study while arguing the justification for the study as well as the 

significance of the study. The delimitations are also discussed, as well as the chapter disposition 

of the study. 

 

1.1 Background of the study 

Communication is a basic managerial function that aids in achieving organizational effectiveness 

(Kapur, 2018; Adjei, 2015). The Public Relations role, specifically, primarily concerns itself with 

identifying, establishing, and maintaining a mutually beneficial relationship between an 

organisation and its publics (Cutlip et al, 2013). Considering the interconnected nature of the world 

today, this function has become increasingly crucial to the operations of large organisations and 

government agencies. The phenomenon can be attributed largely to globalisation and the 

proliferation of new media technology, inter alia, that has significantly affected the dynamics of 

operations within the profession, resulting in the need for a more competent and strategic approach 



2 

 

within the industry; Okudo (2014) argues that as population increases, so does the need of Public 

Relations. 

Mehta & Xavier (2009) highlight effective communication between an organization and its 

publics, monitoring and responding to issues, and maintaining and productive work environment 

as the duties of a Public Relations practitioner. Within the context of government communication, 

Public Relations practitioners are entrusted with advocating, interpreting, and facilitating the 

undertakings of government with the people (Shikalepo, 2021). The mandates of the role comprise 

but are not limited to government policies, global trade, and social justice, and should therefore be 

considered a cardinal management function in communication (Kriyantono, 2019). This area of 

scholarship is known as Government Public Relations (GPR), and it focuses on the value, function, 

and influence of public relations and communication in the public sector (Lee et al., 2021). 

The foregoing is suggestive of a focus on nation-building, typically in developing countries, 

prompting central governments to employ Public Relations practitioners to spearhead their 

communication efforts (Sriramesh, 2009). In Ghana, Public Relations has seen notable growth, 

particularly in recent years (Asante, 2016). Increasing recognition of its importance in shaping 

public perception, building trust, and a good reputation as an imperative of good governance 

substantially informs the prominence given to the role in all public sector institutions. Lee (2008) 

supports this realisation, admonishing that Public Relations helps to execute government’s 

strategic plans for the betterment of the larger society to which it is accountable.  

This development notwithstanding, practitioners have long battled with establishing the position, 

functions, and contribution of Public Relations to institutional growth (Adjei, 2015). Anani-

Bossman (2021) reiterates this conundrum, that Public Relations in Ghana is less often considered 

a managerial function, and is more so practised at the technician level. Anani-Bossman (ibid) 



3 

 

argues that this is partly because many managerial heads do not understand or value the role of 

public relations in their management. These findings are evidenced by rising tensions between the 

Ghanaian populace and the government, in the expression of their disaffection with the way public 

services are rendered (and/or communicated), corroborating Waeraas & Byrkjeflot’s (2012) 

postulation that government institutions are challenged by public trust in the form of negative 

stereotypes, viz: excessive bureaucracy, inflexibility, transparency, and inefficiency. To this end, 

a critical re-evaluation of the role of Public Relations within Ghana’s public sector is beyond 

contention, seeing as it remains the only way by which practitioners may be acknowledged as 

crucial to decision-making and supported within the grand scheme of national governance. 

The Excellence Theory, propounded by Grunig et al (2002), forms the foundation of this study, 

providing a theoretical framework and benchmark for government Public Relations departments 

and units to compare their undertakings against world-class standards, ultimately leading to 

improvements in performance (Grunig, 1993; Grunig & Dozier, 2013). The theory explains the 

value of Public Relations to an organisation’s bottom line and proposes a set of principles that 

define how Public Relations should be managed and practised in order to augment its contribution 

to individual organizations. 

The findings of this study have been extended into a global theory, where its elements are proposed 

as “generic principles” for practising Public Relations on an international scale. They are as 

follows: 

1. Involvement of Public Relations in the strategic management process 

2. Empowerment of public relations in the dominant coalition or a direct reporting 

relationship to senior management 



4 

 

3. Integrated public relations function 

4. Public relations as a management function separate from other functions 

5. Public relations unit headed by a manager rather than a technician 

6. Two-way symmetrical model of public relations 

7. A symmetrical system of internal communication 

8. Knowledge potential and professional training for managerial role 

9. Diversity embodied in all roles. 

These benchmark principles, albeit contributing prominently to the furtherance of Public Relations 

pedagogy, have come under serious academic scrutiny, with many scholars arguing that the theory 

is rather abstract than applicable, especially in contexts outside of the Americas, Europe, and 

Canada. Falconi (2010) for instance, avers that these principles are ineffective if not profoundly 

integrated into ‘the public relations structure of a given territory’. On the other hand, Wakefield 

(2007) raises evidence in support of the validity and applicability of the generic principles across 

international and multinational contexts (Khamis & Toth, 2009). 

However, investigating how the applicability of these principles varies across various nations is 

beyond the scope of this paper. The purpose of the study is to determine the applicability of the 

principles of Excellence Theory in selected Ghanaian public sector organisations by focusing 

attention on four: Involvement of public relations in strategic management, Empowerment of 

Public Relations in the dominant coalition/direct reporting relationship, Knowledge potential and 

professional training for managerial role and the use of the two-way symmetrical model of Public 

Relations. 



5 

 

The importance of public relations management cannot be overemphasised, having been 

thoroughly investigated by several scholars and concluded to be crucial to attaining organizational 

goals. Cornelissen (2020), for instance, holds that Public Relations is indispensable to the effective 

management of every organization, as recommended by the Excellence study. Similarly, 

researchers like Dozier et al (2013) recount that one of the strongest indicators of excellent 

organizations is strategic Public Relations, fortifying the observation that Public Relations has 

evolved over the years, with responsibilities expanding to include, amongst others, internal 

communication, maintaining organisational culture and image, employee engagement and 

advocacy, leadership communication, and conflict management. These stress the role of a 

practitioner as an ‘enabler’ of employee performance instead of the much more traditional 

‘messenger’ or ‘communicator’ approach. Within the context of governance, Relations is believed 

to influence public opinion (Gelders & Ihlen, 2010). 

The plethora of resources notwithstanding, extant literature concerning the subject matter is 

predominantly authored by European and American scholars, who have based their findings on 

studies conducted in their home regions, inadvertently yet evidently institutionalizing an Anglo-

Saxon perspective into global/international Public Relations.  

By examining the extent to which these principles are embraced and implemented across different 

sectors and regions, therefore, this study contributes to the ongoing academic dialogue about the 

universality of the principles for effective Public Relations. Within the Ghanaian public sector 

context, understanding the political landscapes and resource constraints that may influence the 

implementation of these principles will facilitate the provision of pragmatic recommendations for 

adapting and tailoring them to local needs. 

  



6 

 

1.2 Statement of the Problem 

The remits of Public Relations practice and pedagogy have witnessed significant expansion since 

the latter part of the 20th century. But, the evolution of the profession is unending; scholars like 

Wilcox (2006) surmise that the field has yet to fully develop into an established discipline. 

However, despite the growing importance of Public Relations within local, national, and 

international government organizations, including a multidisciplinary interest in Public Relations 

as a whole, scholarship within the government sector is underdeveloped compared to its corporate 

and non-profit counterparts, and has been heavily critiqued for lagging in theoretical advancement 

(Liu & Horsley, 2007).  

Almutairi & Sriramesh (2021) contend that the phenomenon is due to the concentration of 

theorisation in Western and European countries, resulting in a severe paucity of literature on Public 

Relations practice especially within the public sector in other parts of the world. A realistic 

consequence is that a vital contribution towards a global body of theory of Public Relations in 

Government Communication is missing. Case in point, notable domestic Public Relations studies 

that have been conducted in emerging economies like Ghana (Adjin-Tettey et al, 2020; Anani-

Bossman, 2021; Best-Gavi, 2022) have been limited to corporate and non-profit organisations. 

This gives credence to the need for an examination into the effectiveness of Public Relations praxis 

in Ghana through the lenses of government institutions. 

Similarly, extant literature (Liu & Horsely, 2007) describes Public Relations in Government 

communication as typically following the public information model, characterized by a one-way 

flow of information – from government to the citizenry, as opposed to the two-way symmetrical 

model (Dozier et al, 2013), which Gelders & Ihlen (2010) argue to be ideal because citizen 

dialogue is integral to the effectiveness of Public Relations in government. The result is a socio-



7 

 

political environment that is marred by scepticism and mistrust of the government (Omondi, 2012). 

The case is no different for Ghana. 

In view of the ongoing academic discourse surrounding the diverse theoretical frameworks that 

influence Public Relations practices, therefore, a significant topic of interest is “What influences 

the Public Relations practices in Ghanaian public sector institutions?”. It is against this backdrop 

that this study proposes to examine the effectiveness, strategic focus, and alignment with global 

standards of these practices using the Excellence Study as a benchmark. The researcher believes 

that this will provide insight into the role of Public Relations in Government communication and 

the entire governance process. This will also enable professionals to explore avenues for proactive 

and strategic approaches to Public Relations in Ghanaian public sector institutions.  

The study will identify areas for improvement and inform the development of more effective 

communication approaches that foster mutual understanding between the government and the 

people. Essentially, it will aid in drawing conclusions on how relationships between the 

government and the Ghanaian people can best be managed (Heath, 2001) through enhanced 

communication between state institutions and respective stakeholders. 

  

1.3 Aim and objectives of the study 

This study examines the application of the tenets of Excellence Theory in the Public Relations 

practices of selected communication departments in Ghana's public sector institutions. 

The following objectives will undergird the research: 

1. To investigate the level of involvement of Public Relations practitioners in the strategic 

management process of Ghanaian public organizations. 



8 

 

2. To examine the nature of the relationship between Public Relations practitioners and the 

dominant coalition in selected public sector institutions in Ghana 

3. To evaluate the level of knowledge and skills of Public Relations practitioners in selected 

public sector institutions in Ghana. 

4. To investigate the extent to which Public Relations practice in the public sector is premised 

on two-way symmetrical communication. 

  

1.4 Research Questions 

Following the research objectives discussed above, the following questions will be answered at 

the end of the study. 

1. To what extent are Public Relations practitioners in Ghana’s public sector institutions 

involved in strategic management, and do they manage their public relations programs 

strategically? 

2. What kind of reporting relationships do Public Relations departments in public sector 

institutions in Ghana have with the dominant coalition or senior management? 

3. What is the extent of Public Relations knowledge among practitioners in Ghana’s public 

sector institutions? 

4. To what extent is Public Relations practice in the public sector based on two-way 

symmetrical communication? 

  



9 

 

1.5 Significance of the study 

By benchmarking Public Relations practice in Ghana’s public sector institutions against the 

generic principles of the Excellence study, this study modestly enriches current Public 

Relationships scholarship by contributing valuable insights to the development of a framework 

that appropriately reflects contextual variables within Ghana and Africa at large. This is 

particularly critical for the development of a global body of theory that shapes the practice of 

Public Relations, in response to the call by Sriramesh (2008) for evidence from jurisdictions 

outside of the Western world. 

Similarly, this study is significant to incumbent and potential governments in the development of 

domestic campaigns. It will analyse current practices, identify areas where efforts have fallen 

short, and recommend solutions to facilitate a shift towards a more strategic approach to Public 

Relations practice in Ghana’s public sector. 

  

1.6 Scope of the study 

This dissertation examines practice in public sector institutions domiciled in Accra. To be 

economically and chronologically feasible, the study is limited to practitioners who double as 

members of professional Public Relations associations.  

 

 

1.7 Organisation of the study 

This part discusses the chapter disposition of the study. Chapter One, the introductory chapter, 

discusses the background of the study, outlines the research objectives and questions and justifies 

the significance of the study.  



10 

 

The second chapter is the literature review; it assesses, examines and evaluates literature 

concerning the Excellence Study and Public Relations praxis in Ghana. It discusses the conceptual 

review as well as the review of other related empirical studies.  

The third chapter, methodology, expounds on the research design that was employed, data 

collection method and tools, population, sample and sampling technique as well as methods that 

were employed for the analysis of data.  

The fourth chapter is dedicated to the presentation and discussion of findings, while the fifth 

chapter provides a summary, conclusion and recommendations for further studies. 

  

1.8 Chapter Summary 

This chapter focused on the background, the problem statement and the objectives of how the study 

will be treated and dealt with for academic purposes. It also paid attention to the research 

objectives, research questions, and importance of the study as well as its scope. It also narrowed 

in on the organization of the study. 

  

  



11 

 

CHAPTER TWO 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.0 Introduction 

This chapter reviews literature on the research topic by first examining the theoretical 

underpinnings and practical applications of the Excellence study in different contexts. Particular 

attention is given to the relevance and adaptation of these principles in public sector organizations, 

with a focus on the unique challenges and opportunities presented by this domain. Its remits then 

narrow to exploring and analysing literature on the subject of Public Relations in Ghana, as well 

as in public sector organisations, providing a contextual background that highlights the socio-

political and organizational climate within which Public Relations functions. What the review 

seeks to achieve is to contextualize the Excellence Theory within Ghana’s public sector by 

exploring the factors that facilitate or hinder the adoption of these principles and offering a critical 

assessment of their impact on Public Relations practice in this region. 

  

2.1 Theoretical Framework of the Study 

The discussions above give credence to the suitable theory that will undergird this study; the 

Excellence Theory will guide the navigation of this research. 

The excellence theory conceptualizes the effectiveness of Public Relations beyond contribution to 

‘programs’, and spells out prerequisites for the attainment of same. According to Butterick (2011), 

the Excellence Theory is “focused on organisational relations and the attainment of managerial 

power and influence for the Public Relations role” in support of the idea that the Public Relations 

sphere has witnessed a significant evolution in recent years to include, amongst others, 



12 

 

responsibilities such as internal communication, maintaining organisational culture and image, 

employee engagement and advocacy, leadership communication and conflict management. These 

stress the role of a practitioner as an ‘enabler’ of employee performance instead of the much more 

traditional ‘messenger’ approach, necessitating a paradigm shift in how the practice is approached.  

The Excellence Theory by Grunig et al (1992) is of the tenet that effective organisations take into 

consideration all ‘strategic constituencies’ – comprising external and internal stakeholders – in 

their management process, ensured by the enablement of the Public Relations department. In 

essence, effective Public Relations aid companies in generating and preserving profits by 

establishing favourable, enduring connections with their publics (Kehinde et al, 2016). Kehinde et 

al (2016) agree with Grunig et al (1992) that the evaluation of public relations is not solely based 

on whether or not Public Relations programs fulfil communication goals, but on the extent to which 

public relations contributes to the bottom line. 

The Excellence Theory, therefore, aims to identify the conditions that espouse effective public 

relations. It proposes a set of theoretical benchmarks to aid in addressing these practical challenges 

(Toth, 2009). Toth (ibid) maintains that the Excellent Theory comprehensively tackles the 

question; “How, why and to what extent does communication affect the achievement of 

organisational objectives?”. When taken into consideration, all Public Relations efforts should be 

geared towards maintaining a balance between the organisation and all of its stakeholders 

(Shikalepo, 2021). 

The Excellence Theory introduces a comprehensive set of fundamental principles for effective 

Public Relations practice that Grunig et al (1992) argue are universally applicable. Inter alia, these 

principles include the “involvement of Public Relations in Strategic Management, and knowledge 

and professionalism by the public relations unit”. They also required “understanding of and support 



13 

 

for public relations by senior management” (Grunig and Grunig, 2008), and such conditions for 

excellence as a participative culture and support for diversity in the workplace. Wakefield (2007) 

describes these results as the most comprehensive attempt to guide public relations practice by 

gathering and testing theories from both inside and outside the field.  

Regardless of the thoroughness and ground-breaking value of the Excellence Theory, it has not 

been without criticism. Browning (2010), for instance, suggests the Excellence Study, which 

primarily focused on large American corporations, may not fully address the unique challenges of 

public sector organizations, particularly in developing countries. Other critics (L'Etang & Pieczka, 

2012) have argued that the Excellence Theory presents an idealized model that may not be readily 

achievable in real-world organizational settings. 

On the other hand, Botan & Hazleton (2009) acknowledge that the Excellence Theory is not 

absolute, but instead is meant to unify contemporary and competing theories to provide a 

simplified framework for addressing practical problems that Public Relations practitioners face. In 

support of this assertion, several researchers have tested the international applicability of the 

Excellence Theory in cross-cultural contexts and among various multinational organizations. Case 

in point, Heath & Coombs (2006) share that organisations worldwide can apply the Excellence 

Theory in establishing procedures that bolster the contribution of Public Relations to its overall 

performance. This is supported by Davis (2007) who argues that despite its grounding in the 

Western world, organisations around the world have adopted the Theory to determine effective 

Public Relations practice. Similarly, a 2007 study by Wakefield, as cited by Toth (2009) obtained 

adequate evidence to back up the validity of the Excellence Theory on a worldwide scale and its 

relevance in the international, multinational context, since they “offered confirmation of the 



14 

 

excellence variables from senior public relations people who were orchestrating the strategic 

activities around the world” (Wakefield, 2007). 

These findings influence the choice of this theory for exploring how its core principles can be 

adapted to the specific cultural and resource constraints of Ghana's public sector. 

2.1.1 Involvement of Public Relations in Strategic Management 

Grunig et al (1992) believe that for Public Relations to be strategically managed, practitioners must 

be involved in the strategic management process of the organization. This is to enable them to 

develop plans that communicate with both internal and external strategic publics who represent 

risks or opportunities for the organization. Toth (2007) makes a consistent observation in his 

assertion that Public Relations may assist the organisation in adapting to its stakeholders’ 

environment by understanding the stakeholders’ concerns and expectations. Similarly, Verčič et 

al. (1996) aver that organizations strive to develop a positive relationship with the strategic publics 

that support them, thus enabling the organization to save money that might have had to be spent 

on litigation, regulation, legislation, pressure campaigns, or boycotts resulting from poor 

relationships with their publics. 

2.1.2 Empowerment of public relations in the dominant coalition  

The dominant coalition of an organisation refers to “the power-elite group of managers that makes 

strategic decisions for the organization” (Verčič et al., 1996). Grunig et al (1992) found that 

decisions of the dominant coalition influenced the practice of public relations in the organization. 

However, having identified the dominant coalition as a locus of organizational power, the 

researchers also disclosed that practitioners were seldom members of the inner circle. 

Consequently, Grunig et al. (1992) propose that for the Public Relations department to be managed 

strategically, practitioners must be capable of coordinating with management in the execution of 



15 

 

their duties. They intimate that this includes being a significant part of or having access to the 

dominant coalition.  

Botan & Hazleton (2009, p. 33) echo the same sentiment, that the Public Relations function must 

be empowered as a distinctive and strategic managerial function. The Public Relations department 

should have the autonomy to operate according to professional standards rather than conforming 

to the directives of senior management, regardless of their good intentions. Zerfass et al (2008) 

argue that a strong financial and developmental influence can result from a positive relationship 

between top management and Public Relations professionals in any organization. This is evidenced 

by a significant decrease in decision-making risk that affects various stakeholders, a reduction in 

negative publicity, and the establishment of positive relationships with stakeholders. When 

involved in decision-making or reporting directly to senior management, therefore, Public 

Relations’ standing within the organization is elevated, allowing it to significantly influence the 

organization's operations (Anani-Bossman, 2021). 

2.1.3 Knowledge potential for managerial role  

Public Relations managers maximize their effectiveness when they possess technical expertise 

within the field (Botan & Hazleton, 2009). Interestingly, Valentini (2013) notes that Public 

Relations officers require pragmatic knowledge of the field, and not simply one earned through 

education or the academic process. This is corroborated by Mutambo (2014), who portends that 

the duties of Public Relations practitioners include demonstrating professionalism, being 

knowledgeable in the field of communication and ultimately contributing to the strategic 

management of the organisation. However, Anani-Bossman (2021) argues that professionals with 

essential theoretical knowledge are capable of engaging in the organization's strategic 

management. 



16 

 

2.1.4 Two-way Symmetrical Model of Public Relations 

Propounders of the Excellence theory contend that that a two-way flow of information – from an 

organisation to its publics, and vice versa – is the most ethical and effective approach to Public 

Relations. It emphasises open dialogue, mutual understanding, and collaboration as being of great 

significance to the bourgeoning of the organisation, based on an understanding of the need to 

satiate the interests of both the publics and the organisation (Botan & Hazleton (2009).  

Toth (2007) affirms this position, stating that excellent organisations disclose relevant information 

to their publics and pay attention to the needs and expectations of stakeholders through ongoing 

research. Dozier et al. (2013) ratify the observation with the conclusion that two-way symmetrical 

communication is integral to attaining organisational goals, as it involves informed decision-

making. Butterick (2011) interprets this as engaging with stakeholders to listen, learn and adapt 

organisational behaviour to suit the conditions of the society within which they operate, while 

attaining strategic positioning for the organisation concurrently. This nurtures mutual 

understanding and respect from both parties (Butterick, 2011), and remains the most efficient 

approach to building and maintaining a lasting relationship between the organisation and its 

publics. 

 

2.2 Defining Public Relations 

Public Relations primarily refers to the relationship that exists between an organisation and its 

publics, both internal and external. Within the context of public administration, effective Public 

Relations practices are essential for building public support for government initiatives, ensuring 

transparency, and engaging citizens in democratic processes. 



17 

 

Traditionally, Public Relations has been viewed through a lens of image management and positive 

press coverage (Cutlip et al, 2006), emphasising the need to portray an organisation in a favourable 

light, often employing media relations and communication strategies to shape public opinion. 

However, this view has been challenged by scholars who advocate for a more strategic and 

integrated approach to the practice of Public Relations (Grunig, 2006). Lee (2008), amongst others, 

evaluates the Public Relations efforts based on its ability to serve all strategic constituencies of an 

organisation. 

In that regard, Grunig (2006) defines public relations as the strategic management of 

communication between an organization and its publics. Similarly, Baines et al. (2004) define 

Public Relations practice as the art and social science that is designed to analyse trends and 

implement the planned action programmes in an organisation. 

The above definitions and discussion lend support to the exigency for excellent practice within 

public sector institutions as well. 

  

2.2.1 Public Relations Practice in the Public Sector 

Public affairs remain one of the key aspects of government accountability. However, practitioners 

have, for aeons, been unable to distinguish between communication practices in the public and 

private sectors, despite studies establishing more differences than similarities between both (Liu 

et al, 2010). 

Government is responsible for providing essential services that may not be feasible for individuals 

or private organizations to provide. These include law enforcement, fire protection, security, 

wildlife preservation, national defence, public transportation systems, justice systems, social 

programs, and national museums (Omondi, 2012). From a critical perspective, the objective of 



18 

 

governments aligns closely with the objective of Public Relations. As reasoned by Cutlip et al 

(2006), effective governments are those that have historically upheld responsive, mutual 

understanding through two-way communication with their citizens. However, the problems and 

pressures of society increasingly strain the machinery of government (Cutlip et al, 2006), rendering 

it ineffective in several areas. The onus, therefore, falls on Public Relations practitioners within 

the sector to communicate government policies, initiatives and activities to reaffirm trust within 

democracies.  

Findings by Omondi (2012) reiterate the importance of Public Relations practitioners in 

government ministries and departments to strengthening the relationship between the government 

and its citizens. This reasserts the belief that when kept informed, citizens can make reasoned 

choices and participate in policy discussions and public decisions (Michels & De Gaaf, 2010), and 

indicates that Public Relations in the public sector gives more credence to representation at the 

local level (Shikalepo, 2021). It also reiterates the practitioner’s role as a boundary spanner 

between the government and the citizenry. Within the context of excellent practice, Grunig & 

Grunig (2008) posit that practitioners are optimally positioned to play a boundary-spanning role 

between the organisation – or government – and the people by providing regular updates on 

activities that may sever ties between both parties. 

Along a similar tangent, Lee et al. (2021) illustrate that one way to demonstrate excellent 

communication is to make sure that legislators are receptive to the public's requests, enabling 

communities to hold government departments responsible for carrying out initiatives and strategies 

that improve their living standards. 

Interestingly, extant literature concerning Public Relations in the public sector (Laursen & 

Valentini, 2010; Lee, 2021, Édes, 2000) is limited to institution-based practices, with results 



19 

 

indicating that the role of the practitioners is often limited to media relations, internal 

communication, formulating communication strategies and campaigns and public information 

(Lee, 2012; 2021). Several areas in government Public Relations have yet to be tackled; for 

instance, the extent of involvement by public communication officers in the strategic management 

of public sector organizations, and the level of Public Relations knowledge among practitioners 

within the public sector. Their participation in the strategic management of public sector 

organizations is quite relevant, considering its perks to an organisation's bottom line. This opinion 

is also shared by Grunig & Jaatinen (1999), who admonish that communication principles that 

were primarily conceptualized in the private sector, are also valid for the public sector.  

2.2.2 Public Relations in Ghana 

Amoakohene (2015) avers that the introduction and development of Public Relations in Ghana 

goes as far back as before the country gained independence; under British colonial administration. 

Colonial leadership harnessed Public Relations as an effective tool to disseminate information to 

locals, as well as to build and strengthen relationships with key community and opinion leaders 

who bore enough influence to sway support in their favour (Blankson, 2009). In 1949, the 

Department of Information Services (now the Information Services Department) was established 

to facilitate this process (Amoakohene, 2015).  

Upon the attainment of independence in 1957, however, the practice of Public Relations witnessed 

a significant revolution, which directly changed its purpose from public information to public 

diplomacy. The then President-elect of the country, Osagyefo Dr Kwame Nkrumah instituted 

Ghanaians as head of Ministries, as part of his efforts to reshape and refashion the country’s 

leadership. In addition, he established the Ghana Institute of Journalism (GIJ) in 1959, to provide 

training in journalism toward the development of a patriotic cadre of journalists to play an active 



20 

 

role in the emancipation of Africa as a whole. Similarly, in 1971, the Public Relations Association 

of Ghana (later changed to the Institute of Public Relations in 1972) was set up to promote 

professionalism within the industry, as well as set standards for its practice in the country 

(Blankson, 2009). 

 

2.3 Empirical Review 

Recently, studies suggest a lack of strategic planning and evaluation within Public Relations 

functions in Ghana's public sector (Anani-Bossman, 2021). In Mba-Bekoe’s evaluation of Public 

Relations in a developing country, he argued that limited resources, coupled with a focus on short-

term communication needs, could hinder the development of long-term Public Relations strategies 

(Mba-Bekoe, 2018). He points out one of the causal factors for this phenomenon to be cultural 

nuances such as respect for hierarchical structures which, he notes, creates communication barriers 

between Public Relations professionals and senior decision-makers. His findings ring true and are 

substantiated by conclusions drawn by scholars like Anani-Bossman (2021) who intimates that 

Public Relations in Ghana is seldom approached strategically and that practitioners rely on 

experience and personal whim, rather than established frameworks within the discipline, in the 

execution of their duties. Wu and Baah-Boakye (2006, 2009), also disclosed that culture plays an 

essential part in Public Relations practice in the country. This suggests that the cultural interpreter 

and personal influence models hold a significant edge over the Grunigian models in the Ghanaian 

context (Anani-Bossman, 2021). 

The personal influence model focuses on building relationships with external stakeholders, 

encompassing communities, government, media, and activist groups. Conversely, the cultural 

interpreter model is employed by multinational corporations (MNCs) in foreign countries, 



21 

 

necessitating an understanding of the host country's language, culture, customs, and political 

system. The pervasive impact of these two models on Public Relations practice in Ghana is 

unsurprising, given the emphasis placed on interpersonal relationships within its cultural fabric. 

The cultural system is rooted in stakeholder and community participation, fostering collectivism 

(Wu & Baah-Boakye, 2009). This principle empowers Public Relations practitioners to effectively 

interpret stakeholder attitudes and behaviours, promoting robust organization-stakeholder 

relationships through interactive communication. 

  

2.4 Chapter Summary 

This chapter provided a comprehensive overview of the existing literature on Public Relations 

practices in Ghana's public sector, with a particular focus on the applicability of Grunig's principles 

of excellent public relations. In it, the historical context of Public Relations in Ghana was explored 

while discussing the current state of practices within her public sector, and the potential benefits 

and challenges of adopting Grunig's model. 

  



22 

 

CHAPTER THREE 

METHODOLOGY 

3.0 Introduction 

Research methodology is used to describe all the methods involved in the collection of all 

information for the study (Berg, 2009). This chapter details the strategies used to gather and 

analyse empirical data; it elucidates the research design, participant selection, data collection 

instruments, and data analysis procedures to ensure the study’s rigour and trustworthiness. By 

explicating these methodological choices, this chapter aims to provide transparency and enable 

replicability of the research. 

 

3.1 Research Approach 

There are three main research methods in scientific research, viz qualitative, quantitative and 

mixed methods (Creswell et al, 2016). Qualitative research seeks to explore a social phenomenon, 

reveal feelings associated with the problem and understand the subjective experiences of people 

associated with a research problem. In simpler terms, the approach focuses on understanding how 

people make meaning of their social realities. It draws upon the use of non-numerical data (e.g., 

words, pictures, observations) to explore, discover, and describe the experiences, meanings, 

processes, and purposes of the phenomenon under consideration from the perspective of those who 

are experiencing it and typically adds value to the uniqueness, natural variation, diversity, and 

ambiguity of the findings (Brodsky et al, 2016). 

In contrast, quantitative research refers to the numerical representation and manipulation of 

observation which are described and explained in numeric terms (Ahmad et al, 2019). It assumes 



23 

 

that figures provide a factual presentation of issues. It deals, therefore, in numbers, logic, and an 

objective stance. It is original research into a phenomenon in which the researcher determines the 

focus of the study, formulates precise and specific research questions, gathers quantifiable data 

from participants, analyses the data using statistical methods, and approaches the investigation 

neutrally and objectively (Creswell, 2011). This study did not employ the quantitative method 

because, albeit suitable for unbiased analysis and generalization due to larger sample sizes, the 

flexibility that characterises qualitative research offers pivotal merit that the quantitative approach 

does not, i.e allowing the research to adapt its approach as insights emerge that were not considered 

during the initial stages of the research process (Mwita, 2022). 

Given the aim of this study to examine the application of the principles of Excellence Theory in 

Public Relations practices of selected public sector institutions in Ghana, the qualitative method 

was deemed more appropriate, particularly because it is suitable for evaluating the issues in an in-

depth and detailed manner for inductive (generating new knowledge or theory) or deductive 

(confirming the validity of existing knowledge or theory) purposes (Makombe, 2017). 

The method used a series of interviews, with a semi-structured interview guide to elicit rich, 

detailed insights into participants' perspectives and experiences. It offered a deeper understanding 

of the data; in this case, the approach to Public Relations in Ghana’s state agencies, and the 

reasoning behind same. 

  

3.2 Research Design 

In simple terms, the research design is a systematic plan to study a scientific problem. According 

to Khan (2023), the research design is an overall plan or structure for a research project. Similarly, 

Wagner et al (2012) define the research design as a plan to be followed when building up a research 



24 

 

study, and explaining how the research should be conducted. At that, the design is the framework 

that is created to seek answers to research questions. The design of a study defines the study type 

- descriptive, explanatory, exploratory, predictive et cetera, outlined by Cleland et al (2021) as 

regularly recommended by academics as workable alternatives in addressing problems that are 

observed in studies within the social sciences. 

The design for the current research is exploratory. This stems from the limited nature of existing 

research on the research topic, such that it is necessary to gain initial insights and identify potential 

areas for further investigation. 

  

3.3 Research Paradigm 

Research paradigms are a set of beliefs, values and (philosophical) assumptions that (will) guide 

the researcher in their inquiry, encompassing ontological, epistemological, axiological and 

methodological dimensions. According to Creswell (2014), the paradigm guides the methodology 

of how the research proceeds.  

This study is grounded in an interpretivist research paradigm. Interpretivism, as explained by 

Denzin & Lincoln (2005), emphasizes the subjective nature of human experience and the 

importance of understanding social phenomena from the perspectives of those involved. This 

paradigm aligns with the study's aim to explore the lived experiences of Public Relations 

practitioners in Ghana's public sector and understand how they perceive and apply Grunig's 

principles.    

The interpretivist stance facilitates substantive insight into the nuances of public communication 

within the Ghanaian context, going beyond quantitative measurement to include meaning and 



25 

 

interpretation (Creswell, 2014). This approach is particularly suitable for exploring the 

applicability of a theoretical model, such as Grunig's Excellence Theory, in a specific cultural and 

organizational context. 

Whereas Belk (2007) asserts that interpretivism is commonly associated with the qualitative 

research method, it must be said that this study is not purely qualitative however, as it contained a 

questionnaire that included semi-structured questions for elaboration. 

  

3.4 Research Population, Sampling Technique, and Sample Size 

Population refers to the collection of elements about which the researcher wishes to make 

inferences. Donny (2021) refers to the population of a study as any practicable elements, people, 

or observations related to a certain occurrence of interest to the researcher. In light of the above 

definitions, the study considered all Public Relations practitioners in public sector institutions in 

Ghana.  

A researcher cannot study an entire population, especially considering the approach for this study. 

It is imperative, therefore, to select a sample of the population for the study. The sample, according 

to Taherdoost (2016), is a subset of individuals selected from a larger population to be studied, 

enabling researchers to make inferences about the broader group. Sampling is the technique used 

to select these individuals from the population to form the sample (Taherdoost, 2016). Sampling 

techniques and sample size determination are crucial in applied statistics research across various 

fields (Singh, 2014; Ajay, 2014).  

There are two approaches to sampling - Probability and Non-probability sampling. Probability 

sampling methods including simple random, systematic, stratified, cluster, and multistage 



26 

 

sampling give all elements in the population a greater than zero chance of being selected in the 

sample, with a calculable mathematical probability of selection (Wimmer & Dominick, 2011) and 

are preferred for generalizable results (Omair, 2014). Conversely, non-probability sampling 

techniques typically rely on the personal judgement of the researcher and are useful for obtaining 

quick and targeted insights (Alvi, 2016). The choice of sampling method depends on the specific 

research problem, as no single technique suits all situations (Singh, 2014; Ajay, 2014).  

For this study, the researcher employed convenience and snowball or chain-referral sampling under 

non-probability sampling techniques. This choice of method was driven by availability and the 

propensity to reach networks within public relations practice in Ghana’s public sector that are often 

difficult to access, or even concealed to researchers. This made up for Ghana’s lack of a repository 

that outlines state agencies with Public Relations or Communication departments. 

After a study population and sampling technique were chosen, a sample size was determined. 

Sample size represents part of the larger population from whom information will be elicited. A 

proper sample size estimation is essential to avoid erroneous conclusions and depends on factors 

such as population size, confidence level, expected proportion of the outcome variable, and 

required precision (Omair, 2014). Understanding these concepts is vital for conducting reliable 

survey-based research and ensuring representative samples in quantitative studies (Alvi, 2016; 

Omair, 2014). A sample of 15 participants was selected across government ministries and state 

agencies for this study. This choice was informed by the admonishing of Malterud et al (2015) 

who conceptualise ‘information power’ as a pragmatic guiding principle for selecting a sample, 

suggesting that the more information power the sample provides, the smaller the sample size needs 

to be, and vice versa. The researcher drew parallels between the concept of information power and 

the observation of researchers including Francis et al. (2010), Latham (2013) and Daymon and 



27 

 

Holloway (2011) that any sample between 12 and 40 is adequate for reaching data saturation – the 

point at which enough data has been collected to draw necessary conclusions. 

 

3.5 Data Collection Method 

A series of qualitative interviews were conducted to gather data for this study. The justification for 

giving this method a central position in the study is both methodological and objective-driven. 

According to Seidman (2012), interviews in research are “a basic mode of inquiry” with “an 

interest in other individuals’ stories because they are of worth”. Essentially, interviews are an 

interactive form of data collection as compared to a survey (Adler & Clark, 2014), and are highly 

recommended as a suitable tool for initiating new research projects.  

Additionally, within the context of this study, little to no literature exists concerning Public 

Relations practices in governance. To address the challenge, Döringer (2020) avers that 

exploratory expert interviews make it easier to gain knowledge and orientation in unknown or 

hardly known fields. Similarly, Miller and Crabtree (1999, cited in Dörnyei, 2007) describe 

interviewing as involving shared cultural knowledge for drawing consolidated conclusions. This 

offers the possibility of explaining the intent of the research to participants personally, as well as 

ensures flexibility in adding explanatory comments and asking additional questions for increased 

clarification.  

The foregoing is well reflected in the study, which made the qualitative method suitable for the 

research. 

  



28 

 

3.6 Data Collection Instrument 

The study employed a semi-structured interview guide as the main instrument in the data collection 

process. The interview guide was adapted from Anani-Bossman’s work (2021) and allowed the 

researcher to explore participants' experiences, perceptions, and perspectives on the applicability 

of Grunig's principles in the execution of their mandates as government communicators. Magaldi 

and Berler (2020) describe the semi-structured interview as an exploratory interview, coinciding 

with the [aforementioned] research design for this study. They proffer that this type of interview 

is usually guided by a set of questions and is focused on a specific topic, but still allows the 

interviewer to explore discoveries. Thus, the instrument provided more flexibility, range and the 

capacity to elicit more detailed information from participants. 

  

3.7 Data Collection Procedure 

The data collection process for this study involved a meticulous approach to ensure reliable 

information was gathered from the research participants. The first step required recruiting 

participants using the snowball sampling technique, as previously discussed. Interviews were then 

scheduled at the participants’ convenience and preference, some in-person and at their respective 

offices, others via electronic means. Throughout the interviews, audio recordings were captured to 

ensure accurate transcription and analysis. The interviews lasted between thirty and forty-five 

minutes.  



29 

 

3.8 Treatment, Presentation and Analysis of Data 

Data gathered from the strings of interviews was analysed thematically. Braun and Clarke (2006) 

define thematic analysis as a systematic approach to identifying, analysing, and interpreting 

patterns or themes within qualitative data using six interrelated steps - familiarisation, coding, 

searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes and writing up themes, 

where findings are presented in a narrative form, incorporating illustrative quotes and examples to 

provide context and depth to the analysis. The presentation is organised logically and coherently, 

allowing for easy understanding and interpretation. 

  

3.9 Ethical Considerations 

Ethical concerns and dilemmas form a major part of every research undertaking involving 

participants. To understand and elicit appropriate responses from participants concerning the study 

topic, it is crucial to foreground and anticipate potential risks and appropriate responses to support 

safe and ethical practices. 

Khan (2023) defines ethics as moral ideas that guide a person's actions, particularly when they are 

a part of a professional organization. Saunders et al. (2009) further explicate the concept to include 

the researcher’s relationship with the rights of participants. That is, participation in any research 

should be at the discretion of the participants, and their rights protected.  

To ensure this, therefore, respect for all research participants remained an utmost priority to the 

researcher. It was done within the context of respect for participants’ privacy, confidentiality, and 

sensitivity around cultural matters. At that, participants were exposed to the research objectives, 

after which their consent was sought to be part of the study. Consequently, all respondents 

participated in this survey at their own free will, with the right to withdraw from the study at any 



30 

 

point without penalty. Data provided was equally ensured to be bereft of the identity of any 

participant. 

In addition, the interview guide was subjected to scrutiny by the ethics committee of the Research 

Department of the University of Media, Arts and Communication - Institute of Journalism, upon 

whose permission the researcher set out to collect data for the study. 

  

3.10 Chapter Summary 

This chapter outlined the research design and methodological approach employed to investigate 

the research topic. A mixed-methods approach was adopted, combining qualitative and 

quantitative data collection techniques to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research 

topic. 

Of prominence is the matter of ethical considerations, which were strictly adhered to throughout 

the data collection process. The data collected was analysed using thematic analysis for qualitative 

data and descriptive statistics for quantitative data. The next chapter discusses data analysis in 

detail. 

  

 

  



31 

 

CHAPTER FOUR 

DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 

4.0 Introduction 

This chapter presents the results of the data analysis and the findings while simultaneously 

discussing the implications of the findings for the study. Key themes related to understanding and 

implementing Grunig's principles, perceived challenges, and opportunities for improvement are 

explored in detail. The analysis is done in tune with the research objectives, questions, and 

theoretical framework to form the basis for the conclusions that will be drawn.  

 

4.1 Demographic Profile 

Participants for this study comprised 15 public relations practitioners working in various state 

institutions across Ghana. The job title and description varied with each organisation, the 

commonest designations being Corporate Affairs Officer, Communications Manager, and Public 

Relations Officer. Participants were predominantly male (9), while the remaining six (6) 

comprised females. The age range for the participants was between 32 and 50 years, with an 

average age of 38. This was well reflected in their experience or time spent within the public 

relations field, half a decade being the least. 

In terms of educational background, results showed a high level of qualification, with six (6) 

participants holding master's degrees in public relations, whereas three (3) had a bachelor's degree 

only. Three (3) held one of the two qualifications in broad communications, while two (2) were 

trained in media studies.  One (1) participant had a background in Development Communication. 

  



32 

 

4.2 Purpose of Public Relations 

Before addressing the guiding objectives of the study, the researcher sought to understand 

participants’ fundamental perceptions of the chief purpose of Public Relations within the 

government sector. As such, a question that sought to unearth their beliefs concerning the role of 

Public Relations in government communication was asked – “How would you describe the main 

purpose of Public Relations?”. Most of the responses, as presented below, were notably heavily 

influenced by the disciplines within which they have been trained, yet loosely alluded to Omondi’s 

(2006) reasoning about public relations in governance being responsible for strengthening the 

relationship between the government and its citizens, as discussed in the review of existing 

literature.  

In the words of P1, “Public Relations [in government], in my opinion, is crucial for maintaining 

transparency and accountability. It's about keeping the public informed about government policies 

and actions”. 

P2 noted “From my perspective, PR plays a crucial role in enhancing the legitimacy of government 

actions. It’s not just about communication; it’s about building relationships with citizens to 

promote a sense of inclusion and participation in governance. Without this, public trust can erode 

quickly.”  

P3 offered a slightly different insight into the topic “What we do here is about managing 

government’s reputation and creating a good image for government. That is not to claim that we 

do so at the detriment of the people, because at the end of the day, an equally important part of 

the job is to promote good governance by making sure the needs of all Ghanaians are met.”  



33 

 

Their view was supported by P6, who submitted that “It’s about shaping public perceptions by 

highlighting the positive aspects of governance while addressing concerns concurrently, as 

transparently as possible.” 

The primary theme that ran throughout all the definitions, however, was their conceptualization of 

the Public Relations function in governance as necessary for maintaining trust in the government 

by all citizens. This is consistent with the findings of Michels & De Gaaf (2010) who indicate that 

when kept informed, citizens are able to make reasoned choices and participate in policy 

discussions and public decisions. Similarly, Grunig (2008) admonishes that public relations 

practitioners must assume the role of boundary-spanning by providing regular updates to and 

between all involved parties in order to maintain the very ties that bind them together. 

Their understanding of the role of public relations further fortifies the assumptions of the 

Excellence Theory, which recommends that Public Relations is elevated to management level, 

where it can be considered a part of the dominant coalition. This way, practitioners are better 

positioned to inform and influence decisions that are crucial to the reputation of the organization 

(Grunig 1992; Dozier et al. 1995; Grunig et al. 2002). 

 

4.3 RQ1 Involvement of Public Relations in Strategic Management 

Grunig et al (2002) observed that organisational heads, including CEOs and Managers generally 

look out for media relations expertise, which is by itself a technical role, during the hiring process 

for the Public Relations position. “But then they learn that technical expertise is insufficient when 

a crisis or major internal upheaval requires more strategic communication skills. When top 



34 

 

communicators have managerial as well as technical knowledge, ... they can meet such a challenge. 

When they have only technical expertise, they cannot” (Grunig et al., 2002). 

Another objective of the study, therefore, required an exploration of the extent to which Public 

Relations practitioners in Ghana's public sector are involved in the strategic management processes 

of government institutions. This was done to underscore the role of Public Relations in shaping 

organizational direction and achieving strategic objectives. To achieve this, participants were 

asked a series of questions concerning their participation in strategic planning, decision-making, 

and goal-setting.  

4.3.1 Limited integration into strategic management 

The findings indicate that public relations practitioners in Ghanaian government or state agencies 

and institutions largely play a peripheral role in strategic management, and their contributions are 

therefore limited to technical responsibilities including drafting press releases and speeches, 

managing media relations, and coordinating public events. Strategic roles, such as policy 

formulation and setting organisational goals, were significantly under-represented in their 

portfolios.  

According to the Excellence Theory, PR functions achieve their highest impact when empowered 

to operate within the dominant coalition of an organisation—defined as the group of senior 

decision-makers who shape institutional policies and goals (Grunig et al., 1992). However, this 

study found that most practitioners act as subordinates, relegated to technical roles such as media 

relations, event management, and drafting communication materials. This structural exclusion 

undermines their ability to contribute to broader organisational strategies and goals. P1 noted, "Our 

primary tasks, as a Corporate Affairs Unit, revolve around managing media engagements and 



35 

 

drafting communication materials. I’m not saying these are any less important, but we are rarely 

consulted on policy decisions or broader organisational strategies unless there's a crisis."  

P3 corroborated the claim -“The involvement of PR is limited. I am consulted on communication 

aspects, especially for campaigns, but we’re not embedded in the Ministry’s overall strategic 

planning. That is left to management. We have a director in charge of research, statistics, and 

information, but we are to communicate, and that is where my problem has always been. The fact 

that we are the end users of the outcomes of all their work in the sense that we have to communicate 

the decisions that they make means that we have to be part of the process.” 

Seven (7) out of the 15 participants iterated that although their presence is required at management 

meetings, it is less often about their contribution to the decision-making or policy-formulation 

process. In fact, about half of the public institutions sampled for this study had separate policy-

formulation departments whose undertakings are independent of the contributions of the Public 

Relations Officer. However, the paradox lies in the Public Relations department's responsibility 

for communicating and interpreting these policies. This finding corroborates the enduring 

misconception about public relations being a mere tactical function rather than a strategic 

management tool (Anani-Bossman, 2021). It also creates a disconnect between the intentions of 

the policy-formulation team and the public's reception of said policies, as public relations 

practitioners are excluded from providing insight that could ensure policies are better aligned with 

institutional goals and the expectations of citizens. 

4.3.2 Partial Participation into strategic management 

The operational roles of the practitioners notwithstanding, eight (8) participants maintained that 

they contribute to the development of the goals and objectives of their policies through technical 

advisory, identifying strategic publics like opinion leaders who can affect the institution's dealings, 



36 

 

as well as anticipating and managing crises. Particularly, it was keenly observed that participants 

above the age of 40 or with more than ten years of experience in their role insisted that they are 

involved in strategic management to a higher degree than their peers. The nexus between age, 

experience, and involvement in the strategic management of an organisation was succinctly 

iterated by P12 who said “My opinions are highly valued by the heads of the institution because 

the longer you stay in this job, the more you understand the dynamics of the sector; you would 

learn in no time that it is you who brings value to the role, and not vice versa.” 

P8 also added that – “A lot depends on how much you’ve seen and done over the years. Sometimes, 

we propose ideas or strategies, and management listens politely, but it’s really their call on what 

to use or discard. Over time, you learn which battles to pick and how to position your ideas so 

they align with what they’re already thinking.” 

This effort at the strategic management of their Public Relations activities notwithstanding, further 

probing into the value that management placed on the decision-making abilities of practitioners 

revealed that the Public Relations function, particularly within government agencies, is 

subordinate to the judgement of the dominant coalition. This is well articulated by P2 who echoed 

the connection between experience and inclusion in strategic management - “I am a part of the 

management of this institution, but as we have said multiple times, not to the level that we wish we 

were. I always make the argument that strategic planning must be a collaborative process, so that 

the thoughts of everyone and every department feed into the overarching decisions for a certain 

period, but you’ll come to find that in whatever we do, ultimately, the decision on how to proceed 

rests with senior management, all the time; they may incorporate some of our suggestions and 

advice, they may not. Whatever be the case, your job ends where theirs start.” 

 



37 

 

4.3.3 Underutilisation of Research 

The foregoing antinomy concerning age, strategic management and managements’ valuation of 

public relations is well reflected in the fact that participants reported that albeit crucial to their 

activities, research was often underutilised in their undertakings. This reality corroborates existing 

literature, especially Grunig (2008), who contends that Public Relations practitioners can display 

competence by acting as boundary spanners and environmental scanners between an organization 

and its stakeholders. What this means is that the ability to conduct research, and the frequency 

with which it is done is a prerequisite for contributing to strategic management (Grunig & Grunig, 

2000). Along a similar tangent, Supa (2014) argues that the role of Public Relations involves 

ensuring that the interests of all internal and external publics are well represented in the decisions 

made by the organisation. On the contrary, participants divulged that their Public Relations 

campaigns often lack empirical backing, especially in terms of evaluative research, which they 

attributed to resource constraints and lack of institutional support. This included financial, 

technological, time factors, and the perception of Public Relations within the institution. 

Furthermore, there is often a lack of strategic intent behind the research that is conducted. Instead 

of research being seen as a tool for long-term strategic planning, it is often reactive, aimed only at 

immediate needs such as addressing public complaints or preparing for specific events. 

According to P11 – “We often conduct research, but honestly, our approach isn't as extensive as 

we’d like. Pre-campaign studies might include stakeholder consultations and public sentiment 

analysis. Post-campaign evaluations are less formal but include feedback from the public and 

media coverage reviews.” 



38 

 

P1 also had this to say – “Most of the research is done by the Programmes Department. They bring 

us the concept notes, and then we use that to do what we’ve been asked to do. So yeah, our people 

think it’s redundant for PR to conduct research and Programmes to also conduct.” 

P6 also commented – “We don’t research as often as we should. Most of our research is informal, 

like gathering feedback during public forums. That said, we did conduct a stakeholder perception 

survey before revising our service charter. The insights were invaluable but highlighted the need 

for a more consistent approach to research.” 

P9 summed it up by saying “We rarely conduct formal research. While we understand its 

importance, constraints such as limited budgets and lack of trained personnel have made it 

difficult. Informally, we gather feedback during events or from social media.” 

It can be concluded, therefore, that the majority of Public Relations in Ghana’s public sector is 

significantly less strategic than it is operational; and that against the first principle of the 

Excellence Theory, there is a partial integration of the Public Relations function into the strategic 

management of sampled institutions, deferring by each institution. What this means is that, 

whereas the leadership of these institutions recognise Public Relations as a perquisite of the 

democratic process, especially in their attempt to communicate their views in the public forum, 

the contributions of Public Relations experts are rudimentary at best. This finding echoes Smith 

(2017), who noted that Public Relations is often regarded as an information dissemination tool, 

rather than as a strategic management function. Similarly, it is reflective of the supposition that a 

focus on short-term communication, compounded by limited resources, could hinder the 

development of long-term Public Relations strategies (Mba-Bekoe, 2018), and essentially restrict 

the practitioner to the employment of personal whim rather than established frameworks within 



39 

 

the discipline, as argued by Anani-Bossman (2021). This short-term focus undermines the 

potential for PR to contribute meaningfully to strategic decision-making. 

 

4.4 RQ2 Reporting Relationship in Ghana’s public sector and level of empowerment  

The study also sought to examine the nature of the relationship between Public Relations 

practitioners and the dominant coalition in selected public sector institutions in Ghana. Grunig and 

Hunt (2011) prescribe that the effectiveness of Public Relations is contingent on practitioners’ 

access to and influence within the dominant coalition. The ensuing findings provide insights into 

the challenges of elevating PR from an operational function to a more empowered, strategic entity. 

4.4.1 Direct reporting relationships, yet marginal influence 

Findings showed that while the majority of participants are considered to be part of management, 

they still tend to report to the Heads of the institution, who in the Ghanaian political context is the 

Minister, Executive Director or Chief Executive Officer, as seen in the following quotations.  

From P1, – “I report directly to the CEO, which is why it’s easier to sometimes do some of the 

things that Accounts will tell us there is no budget for.” 

P3 said – “I report to the Chief Director, but I work closely with the Minister on specific projects.” 

According to P2, “I report directly to the Minister. We have a cordial relationship, all three of us 

– the Minister, myself, and his Deputy. This is necessary because I need to keep them constantly 

updated on all matters affecting the sector.” 

This indicates a direct reporting relationship with senior management and essentially suggests 

some knowledge potential to be included in the dominant coalition. However, while managers 



40 

 

wield more influence than technicians, occupying a managerial position in public relations does 

not necessarily translate into influence within the organisation (Reber & Berger, 2006). This is 

evident in the present study because while a cordial relationship reportedly exists between the 

dominant coalition and the public relations practitioners or department for the majority of the 

participants, it was not enough to empower them by including them in the dominant coalition. A 

significantly smaller number of participants reported only partial integration into the dominant 

coalitions. These coalitions were notably considered to operate in high-stake contexts.  This was 

P3’s meaningful insight into the subject matter – “While we’re not fully embedded in senior 

management decision-making, there’s strong support for PR. I report directly to the Director 

General, and our inputs are highly valued, especially for stakeholder engagement and policy 

communication.”  

Similarly, P1 admitted that – “No, not at all. [I don’t belong to the dominant coalition]. The CEOs 

and some of the Directors are in charge here. Key decisions rarely seek our opinions, indicating 

a lack of understanding or mistrust in our ability to contribute to the long-term vision.” 

This observation is not particularly surprising since the dominant coalition of public institutions in 

Ghana are typically appointed by the President of the country, with approval from the Parliament. 

At that, decision-making is ordinarily vested in the hands of a select group of people, with the 

functions of the Public Relations departments primarily limited to communicating said decisions—

in the form of policies—to the citizens and achieving media coverage for the enterprise of the 

dominant coalition. This function is by nature very operational, and in line with the findings of 

other international studies on government communication (Mancini, 2006: Lee, 2007, Laursen and 

Valentini, 2010). 



41 

 

When age, experience and unique titles of the job positions are considered, however, significant 

differences emerge in the value placed on public relations; practitioners over 40 years or who had 

spent over a decade in government communication tended to lean towards the assertion that they 

played a role, albeit minor, in the activities of the dominant coalition. According to them, 

management values and supports their strategies, general communication activities and advice 

concerning building consensual relationships with their stakeholders. From this knowledge, a 

deduction that older practitioners are often perceived as more experienced and knowledgeable, 

which can lead to greater trust is drawn. Whereas this buttresses findings by Valentini (2013), who 

suggests that perceived expertise plays a critical role in how PR professionals are viewed within 

organisations and Wu & Baah-Boakye (2009) who highlight that in contexts like Ghana, deference 

to older individuals often shapes workplace dynamics, evidence to prove that a direct reporting 

relationship gives practitioners a say in decision-making was lacking, reinforcing literature (Yue, 

2016) that the presence of a direct reporting relationship does not equate to a seat within the 

dominant coalition. 

4.4.2 Misconception about public relations 

The foregoing was also echoed in participants’ responses concerning managements’ understanding 

of the strategic value of public relations, which the majority argued was a misperception of the 

value of the profession. The findings also suggest partial validation of the theory’s universal 

principles. There is evidence that strategic contributions can be made to crisis management and 

stakeholder engagement in high-stakes situations or institutions where experienced practitioners 

work. Yet, these instances are exceptions rather than the norm, emphasising the need for localised 

adaptations of the theory to suit the cultural and institutional realities of developing countries like 

Ghana. Anani-Bossman (2021) has argued that public relations has yet to be fully appreciated in 



42 

 

Ghana, despite the numerous advancements the field has witnessed in both practice and academia. 

Anani-Bossman (ibid.) clarifies that public relations is still considered a publicity or media 

relations role and that practitioners are most needed when crises arise. The views of the participants 

in this study substantiate this stance. 

P13 divulged that - “PR is recognised in this institution, and we report directly to the Chairperson. 

However, a deeper involvement in the dominant coalition will truly align our communication 

strategies with the goals of the Ministry.” 

P1 had this to add: “Management sees PR as functional rather than strategic. Key decisions rarely 

seek our opinions, indicating a lack of understanding or mistrust in our ability to contribute to the 

long-term vision.” 

4.4.3 Support, without strategic involvement 

The study also investigated the level of empowerment Public Relations departments from the 

sampled institutions received from the dominant coalition. This is attuned to the recommendation 

of the Excellence Theory—that the Public Relations department receives significant support from 

management in the execution of its mandates. To achieve this, participants were asked ‘How much 

support do you receive from the dominant coalition?’ to which an overwhelming majority 

responded that they receive substantial support from institutional heads. This demonstrates a belief 

in the role of communication in the practice of democracy by heads of government institutions.  

This was confirmed by P4 – "Oh, absolutely, we get a lot of support from the top. Our management 

understands that effective communication is crucial for building public trust. For instance, 

whenever we propose campaigns to address some concerns, they’re quick to provide the necessary 

resources." 



43 

 

P6 submitted that – “Management values our efforts, especially in crisis situations. They 

appreciate the work we do to maintain public trust and ensure smooth communication during 

critical times." 

In the words of P3, “Management is supportive, but it depends on the context. When there’s a 

crisis or a major event, they’re quick to provide resources and involve us in the process. Outside 

of those situations, though, the support can feel more procedural—like approving press releases 

or signing off on campaigns. It’s not that they don’t value PR; I think it’s just that they see it as 

something that’s handled as needed, rather than as a constant strategic priority.” 

This perceived support, according to the findings of the study, is however insufficient to earn them 

a place in the decision-making body of the institution, as stated prior. The prevailing circumstance, 

as it is, was largely attributed to hierarchical barriers that exist in government institutions. The 

researcher believes this is deep-rooted in the lack of understanding of the [strategic role] of public 

relations, corroborating the observations of Wu & Baah-Boakye (2009). This lends support to the 

case that a lack of organisational support and inaccessibility to resources undermines the 

practitioner’s ability to demonstrate their value as strategic partners (Anani-Bossman, 2021; Mba-

Bekoe, 2018). 

Such anecdotal data suggests that government institutions' reluctance to incorporate public 

relations into their strategic management, despite its perceived importance, stems primarily from 

the intangible nature of the profession's end-results. This reinforces the misconception that public 

relations is a tactical function rather than a strategic role. It corroborates Mba-Bekoe (2018), who 

points out that the exclusion of public relations from the decision-making mechanism of 

organisations is exacerbated in environments such as the Ghanaian socio-political climate, where 

communication is undervalued due to cultural and institutional norms.  



44 

 

This is contextually accurate, with reference to the research behaviour of practitioners in the 

government sector, as discovered vis-à-vis Objective 1. Where evaluative research is lacking, 

demonstrating the value of the function to the organisational bottom line is virtually inexistent, or 

is an arduous task when the need arises. Existing data supports this contention that public relations 

practitioners may, as a consequence, face pressure to demonstrate immediate, tangible and often 

monetary benefits of their work rather than focusing on long-term strategic goals and intangible 

outcomes like building brand reputation and enhancing stakeholder relationships (Anani-Bossman, 

2021). 

  

4.5 RQ3: Knowledge potential among practitioners in Ghana’s public sector institutions 

This section of the study evaluated the level of knowledge and skills possessed by public relations 

practitioners in the selected public sector institutions in Ghana. This is necessary for understanding 

the participants’ capacity to apply the principles of the Excellence Theory in their communication 

efforts, as well as effectively execute Public Relations campaigns strategically.  

Botan and Hazleton (2009) aver that the effectiveness of Public Relations is augmented when the 

practitioner possesses a strong technical foundation within the field. Such expertise allows them 

to conduct meaningful research, interpret stakeholder data, and employ modern tools such as 

digital media analytics, to engage effectively with diverse audiences (Valentini, 2013; Toth, 2007). 

Additionally, technically skilled PR managers can adapt to evolving communication technologies 

and stakeholder expectations, making them invaluable in navigating complex organizational and 

public challenges (Grunig et al., 1992). 

 



45 

 

4.5.1 Greater technical proficiency than managerial expertise 

For this study, the researcher observed that participants had a high theoretical knowledge of both 

the technical and managerial roles of Public Relations, with a relatively higher insight into the 

former. However, participants alluded to a lower pragmatic skillset for the managerial role, as 

opposed to their proficiency with operational functions including writing communication 

materials, moderating events and serving as liaison officers between the institution and the media. 

P1 commented – "Our primary tasks, as a Corporate Affairs Unit, revolve around managing media 

engagements and drafting communication materials. I’m not saying these are any less important, 

but we are rarely consulted on policy decisions or broader organisational strategies unless there's 

a crisis." 

This was concurred by P9, who noted that – “Our activities include stakeholder forums, public 

education campaigns, and media relations. A significant portion of my work involves responding 

to inquiries and concerns from both the public and telecom operators.” 

In terms of knowledge for managerial roles, competency differed significantly across institutions. 

Some participants demonstrated high levels of expertise in modern communication strategies, 

including the use of research and digital tools in the development of communication strategies, as 

well as an understanding of the boundary-spanning and environmental scanning roles of a 

practitioner. They were, however, less skilled in negotiating with activist groups, a phenomenon 

which was largely attributed to the domineering role of management in government institutions, 

where the institutional Heads would rather spearhead advocacy, except in crisis scenarios. 



46 

 

For instance, P9 mentioned "We use surveys and focus groups to gauge public sentiment and 

inform our campaigns. Additionally, social media analytics help us understand which messages 

resonate most with our audience." 

P3 also had this to say – “We try to anticipate public concerns by monitoring trends and scanning 

the environment. This helps us position the institution better, even if we’re not directly involved in 

policymaking." 

On the other hand, some participants demonstrated a lack of advanced skills and therefore relied 

on traditional public relations responsibilities like media relations and press releases. P1’s 

submission well reflected this matter – “Our primary tasks, as a Corporate Affairs Unit, revolve 

around managing media engagements and drafting communication materials. We mostly do 

stories, press releases, and media coordination." 

This limits their ability to engage in strategic management. The converging point, though, is that 

all participants were proficient in the rudiments of mass communication, including but not limited 

to good verbal and writing skills. 

4.5.2 Qualification as a necessity 

While Valentini (2013) and Mutambo (2014) emphasise that technical expertise and a pragmatic 

understanding of communication are critical for PR practitioners to function as strategic managers, 

Anani-Bossman (2021) reiterates that academic standing is equally pivotal in the matter of 

strategic management. To this end, observations were made that confirmed that academic 

qualifications can indeed significantly influence the knowledge and skills of practitioners, 

impacting their potential to assume managerial roles. During the study, participants with advanced 

degrees in the field of public relations knew more about and implemented strategic campaigns for 



47 

 

their respective institutions. These were closely subordinated by persons who had spent a decade 

or more in the field or who had commensurate degrees in related fields such as communication or 

journalism.  It was also unsurprising to find that participants with a bachelor’s degree in public 

relations possessed more managerial acumen than persons with advanced degrees in unrelated 

fields. 

4.5.3 Gaps in training and professional development 

To keep up a high level of effectiveness, practitioners need recurring training and chances to build 

their skills, even if they already have a strong background in public relations. This is because, 

without targeted training, public relations will struggle to move beyond operational roles (Grunig 

et al, 1992). At that, practitioners must possess skills in research methods, digital communication, 

campaign planning and evaluation. All of the institutions that took part in the study had the same 

problem: they couldn't afford strategic training and opportunities to build people's skills were 

nonexistent. These gaps were most evident in institutions where the Public Relations function 

leaned towards supporting the dominant coalition rather than having access to or influence within. 

The challenge was succinctly put by P15: “We often struggle with budgetary constraints, limited 

training opportunities, and a lack of exposure to the decision-making processes of management. 

At least when these things are in place we can know the do’s and don’ts of the present climate 

because these things change with each passing day.” 

P14 affirmed this stance – “the world is changing, and so are all means of communication. You 

have the likes of social media metrics now, and even lingo that is unique to each channel you 

choose to work with. I am of the opinion that Public Relations should be given as much eminence 

as other departments like the Legal and Financial departments in order to build upon the skills we 

already have.” 



48 

 

Out of the 15 participants that were sampled for this study, only one participant reported an 

affiliation with a professional body for Public Relations. This denotes an apparent divorce between 

Public Relations practice in the public sector